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2007-12-05T11:08:00.000-08:00

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Magyarization or Magyarisation (or "Hungarization", "Hungarianization" or "Hungarianisation", etc.) is a common designator applied to a number of ethnic assimilation policies implemented by various Hungarian authorities at various times. These policies aimed at imposing or maintaining the dominance of Hungarian language and culture in Hungarian-ruled regions by encouraging or compelling (often by forcible means) people of other ethnic groups to adopt the Hungarian language and culture, and to develop a Hungarian identity.

Origin of the term
The term is also sometimes used to refer to broader ethnic discrimination, which was used as a rationale for Magyarization. From the Hungarian point of view, historically notable personalities that came from Magyarized families were Hungarian.

Magyarization in broader sense
The term Magyarization is usually used in regards to the national policies implemented by the government of the Kingdom of Hungary, which was part of the Habsburg Empire. The onset of this process dates to the late 18th century The policies of Magyarization aimed to make the fluency in Hungarian language a requirement for access to basic government services such as local administration, education, and justice.

Magyarization in the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary
The first Hungarian government after the Ausgleich, the 1867–1871 liberal regime led by Count Gyula Andrássy and sustained by Ferenc Deák and his followers, passed the 1868 Nationality Act, that declared "all citizens of Hungary form, politically, one nation, the indivisible unitary Hungarian nation (nemzet), of which every citizen of the country, whatever his personal nationality (nemzetiség), is a member equal in rights." The Education Act, passed the same year, shared this view as the Magyars simpy being primus inter pares ("first among equals"). At this time ethnic minorities "de jure" had a great deal of cultural and linguistic autonomy, including in education, religion, and local government.). These empty lands were repopulated, by administrative measures adopted by the Vienna Court especially during the 18th century, by Hungarians and Slovaks from the northern part of the Kingdom that avoided the devastation (see also Royal Hungary), Swabians, Serbs (Serbs were majority in most southern parts of the Pannonian Plain during Ottoman rule, i.e. before those Habsburg administrative measures), Croats and Romanians. The result of this migration was that on a large swath of land, roughly between Kecskemét and the southern border areas, various ethnic groups lived side by side (this ethnic heterogeneity is preserved until today in certain parts of Vojvodina, Bačka and Banat). After 1867, Hungarian became the lingua franca on this territory in the interaction between ethnic communities, and individuals who were born in mixed marriages between two non-Magyars often grew a full-fledged allegiance to the Hungarian nation (the best-known example being Sándor Petőfi, Hungarian national poet born from a Serbo-Slovak marriage). Since Latin was the official language until 1842 and the country was directly governed from Vienna (which excluded any large-scale governmental assimilation policy from the Hungarian side before the 1867 Ausgleich), the factor of spontaneous assimilation should be given due weight in any analysis relating to the demographic tendencies of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century.

State policy and ethnic relations
Although the policy of Magyarisation was mainly pursued in the form of discrimination (see the sections below), the measures were backed by the state police and secret police One of the incidents that shocked the European public opinion was the Černová massacre in 1907.

Violent oppression
Schools funded by churches and communes had the right to provide education in minority languages. These church-funded schools, however, were mostly founded before 1867, that is, in different socio-political circumstances. Clause 38 of the 1868 law

Education
The central part of the Kingdom of Hungary was colonized with settlers belonging to different nationalities in the 18th century. Colonization was implemented in the Dunántúl consider that Count Grassalkovich settled Slovaks and Rusyns among Hungarians with the goal to increase number of Hungarians. Separated from their main ethnic territory in Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia, these two groups would be easily assimilated by the Hungarians. It is evident that most of the Slovaks of Roman Catholic faith that were settled in Vojvodina were later assimilated into the Hungarians, while those that were Protestants retained their Slovak ethnicity.
The settling in of Hungarians into the region continued until the end of the First World War. The statistics for 1880-1900 period show that the ordinary population growth in the Kingdom of Hungary for this period was +10.3%. However, the comparison between population growth of Serbs and Hungarians in the cities of Vojvodina show that Serb population growth was -19.5%, while Hungarian population growth was +105.2%. The last number, however, indicate both, colonization and Magyarization of non-Hungarians from the area.

Colonization
The census system of the post-1867 Kingdom of Hungary was unfavourable to nationalities. According to the 1874 election law, which remained unchanged until 1918, only the upper 5.9% of whole population had voting rights. That high census effectively excluded almost the whole peasantry and the working class from the political life. The percentage of low-income people was somewhat higher among the nationalities than among the Magyars, except the Germans who were generally richer.
In 1900, nearly 33% of the deputies were elected by less than 100 and close upon 66% of the deputies were elected by less than 1000 votes. The Magyars who gave the 54.5% of the whole population (in Hungary proper) had 60.2% majority in the electorate. Ethnic Germans participated with 10.4% in population and 13.0% in the electorate. The participation of other ethnic groups was as follows: Slovaks (10.7% in population, 10.4% in the electorate), Romanians (16.1% in population, 9.9% in the electorate), Rusyns (2.5% in population, 1.7% in the electorate), Croats (1.1% in population, 1.0% in the electorate), Serbs (2.2% in population, 1.4% in the electorate), and others (2.2% in population, 1.4% in the electorate).
Officially, Hungarian electoral laws haven't contained any legal discrimination based on nationality or language. The high census wasn't uncommon in other European countries in the 1860s but later the countries of Western-Europe gradually lowered and at last abolished their censi. That never happened in the Kingdom of Hungary, although electoral reform was one of the main topic of political debates in the last decades before WW1.

Names
As a result of the Magyarization policy
People moved chiefly for economic reasons (labour migration) and, until 1914, 25% of the emigrants returned (this process was stopped by World War I). The majority of the emigrants came from the most indigent social groups, especially from the agrarian sector. Almost 530,000 people left the country between 1905 and 1907, which shows a direct connection between the U.S.'s trade fluctuation and Hungary's developing stages (the living standard of the peasantry, decline of agrarian movements, and even the Phylloxera plague).

Emigration
The Jewish population of the Kingdom of Hungary may have been the only minority to actively embrace Magyarization, because it saw it as an opportunity for assimilation without conceding their religion. Stephen Roth writes, "Hungarian Jews were opposed to Zionism because they hoped that somehow they could achieve equality with other Hungarian citizens, not just in law but in fact, and that they could be integrated into the country as Hungarian Israelites. The word 'Israelite' (Hungarian: Izraelita) denoted only religious affiliation and was free from the ethnic or national connotations usually attached to the term 'Jew', which could therefore be regarded as a derogatory. Hungarian Jews attained remarkable achievements in business, culture and less frequently even in politics. But even the most successful Jews were not fully accepted by the majority of the Magyars as one of their kind — as the events following the Nazi invasion of the country in WW II so tragically demonstrated."

Jews
As a result of the forced Magyarization policy in the Kingdom of Hungary, the Slovaks were a culturally, politically, etc. decimated nation. Although the share of Slovaks within the electorate (10,4%) largely reflected their weight in the total population of Hungary proper (10,7%) Slovaks had extremely marginal representation in the parliament (0 or 1 deputy out of 420 MPs). Although at the time of the Ausgleich there were more than one thousand Slovak elementary schools, their number was gradually reduced to 322 until 1918. Slovaks had no institutions, offices, judges, they were often prevented from voting

Magyarization in Upper Hungary

1844 - Hungarian is gradually introduced for all civil records (kept at local parishes until 1895). German became an official language again after the 1848 revolution, but the laws reverted in 1881 yet again. From 1836 to 1881, 14,000 families had their name Magyarized in the area of Banat alone.
1898 - Simon Telkes publishes the book "How to Magyarize family names".
1897 - The Bánffy law of the villages is ratified. According to this law, all officially used village names in the Hungarian Kingdom had to be in Hungarian language.
1907 - The Apponyi educational law made Hungarian a compulsory subject in all schools in the Kingdom of Hungary. This also extended to confessional and communal schools, which had the right to provide instruction in a minority language as well. "All pupils regardless of their native language must be able to express their thoughts in Hungarian both in spoken and in written form at the end of fourth grade [~ at the age of 10 or 11]" See also

2007-12-04T07:13:00.001-08:00

Hills District is a general, but unofficial, term for the north-western suburbs of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The Hills District is also referred to as The Hills. These suburbs are generally located within the local government area of Baulkham Hills Shire but parts of the City of Parramatta. City of Blacktown and Hornsby Shire are also included in the area that is given the appellation "Hills District".
It is so called for its characteristically comparatively hilly topography, and the fact that several of its suburbs have the word 'Hills' in their names, such as Pennant Hills, Castle Hill, West Pennant Hills and Baulkham Hills.
The Hills District is characterised by its relatively affluent households, usually families, living in low-density housing. It is the most rapidly growing region of Sydney.
The regional designation is a largely artificial construct and actual suburbs and localities that are considered to be in "the Hills" can be somewhat amorphous and varies according to who is doing the listing. For example the Hills District Historical Society restricts its remit to the Baulkham Hills Shire local government area. However notwithstanding this, suburbs or parts of suburbs that appear in all or some published listings of the "Hills District" such as Yellow Pages, local newspapers and businesses include: Baulkham Hills, Beaumont Hills, Bella Vista, Carlingford, Castle Hill, Cheltenham, Cherrybrook, Dural, Epping Galston, Glenhaven, Glenorie, Glenwood, Kellyville, Kellyville Ridge, Kenthurst,Kings Langley, North Rocks, Pennant Hills, Round Corner, Rouse Hill, Thompsons Corner, Seven Hills, West Pennant Hills and Winston Hills. [1]
It should be noted that the Local Government Authority that comprises "the heart" of the notional region is a member of WSROC a grouping which characterises itself as "Greater Western Sydney" region.
Land grants in the district were made shortly after settlement began, however much of the district owes its development to the construction of the railway line between Strathfield and Hornsby, which wasn't declared open until 17th September 1886, some 15 years before Federation, and almost a century after land grants were first made in the area. [2]
At present, the district boasts Sydney's largest cinema complex, spanning both the Castle Hill Piazza and Castle Towers.[3]

Geography
The area is notable for the fact that it has the highest rate of religious service attendance in Australia . Many religious denominations and belief systems are represented throughout the district, including, notably, the Mormon's Sydney Australia Temple in Carlingford, the Hillsong Church situated in Norwest Business Park. As with other urban regional areas in Australia there are numerous other places of worship catering to a wide range of belief systems including Anglican, Baptist, Buddhist, Hindu, Uniting, Chinese Christian, Islamic, Spiritualist, Roman Catholic and Sikh.

Religion
Observations and figures provided regarding housing and financial well-being, age distribution in the population, and religious attendance have led to a stereotype of the residents of the Hills District as docile, elderly, upper-middle class conservatives.

Stereotype In Popular Culture
The Hills District boasts both State Transit services and a number of private services.
The train network spans five CityRail network train stations, encompassing sections of the Northern Line, the Carlingford Line, and the Newcastle & Central Coast Line, including the western terminus of the Epping to Chatswood line.
An extensive list of bus services operate in the district, including Westbus, HillsBus, Harris Park Bus, CityBus Direct, Busways, Glenorie Bus Company, and Sydney Buses.

Public Transport Network
The district is home to 53 primary schools, 24 secondary schools, one TAFE college and numerous pre-schools and kindergartens, including both public and private systems, and selective schools. [4]

Education
The area hosts a large number of licensed premises where residents and visitors can obtain alcoholic refreshments, food service, gaming and other entertainment facilities. Notable among such venues are The Mean Fiddler in Rouse Hill and The Bull and Bush in Baulkham Hills, both of which are heritage listed properties.

Sport

2007-12-03T09:22:00.001-08:00

The Arizona Legislature is the state legislature of the U.S. state of Arizona. It is a bicameral legislature that consists of a lower house, the House of Representatives, and an upper house, the Senate. There are 60 Representatives and 30 Senators. The state legislature meets in the Capitol Complex in the state capital, Phoenix.

Term limits

Arizona State Capitol
Arizona House of Representatives
Arizona Senate

2007-12-02T08:59:00.000-08:00

Chermside is a suburb on the north side of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Chermside is a key destination along Queensland Transport's future Northern Busway. Chermside is home to Brisbane's largest Westfield shopping centre which now contains a 3 story Myer and a 16 screen cinema complex.
Together with Indooroopilly, in the west; Carindale, in the southeast; and Mount Gravatt, on the south side; the suburb has been described as a mini-CBD.

2007-12-01T07:31:00.001-08:00

This article is about the key person behind the C++ Standard Template Library. For other notable people named Stepanov, see Stepanov (disambiguation).
Alexander Stepanov (born November 16, 1950 in Moscow) is the key person behind the C++ Standard Template Library, which he started to develop around 1993 while employed at HP Labs. He had earlier been working for Bell Labs close to Andrew Koenig and tried to convince Bjarne Stroustrup to introduce something like Ada Generics in C++. He is currently employed by Adobe Systems. Stepanov is the father of eight grown children and is a grandfather to four.

2007-11-30T08:11:00.001-08:00

Organizational performance comprises the actual output or results of an organization as measured against its intended outputs (or goals and objectives).
Specialists in many fields are concerned with organizational performance including strategic planners, operations, finance, legal, and organizational development.
In recent years, many organizations have attempted to manage organizational performance using the balanced scorecard methodology where performance is tracked and measured in multiple dimensions such as:
- financial performance (e.g. shareholder return) - customer service - social responsibility (e.g. corporate citizenship, community outreach) - employee stewardship

2007-11-29T09:11:00.001-08:00

Gainesville is the largest city and county seat of Alachua County, Florida.

History
Gainesville is located at 29°39'55" North, 82°20'10" West (29.665245, -82.336097),which is roughly the same latitude as Houston, Texas. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 49.1 square miles (127 km²), of which 48.2 square miles (125 km²) is land and 0.9 square miles (2 km²) is water. The total area is 1.87% water.
Gainesville is one of the southernmost cities in the United States where deciduous trees predominate, and has been recognized every year since 1982 as a "Tree City, USA". There are deciduous trees farther south, but they are not as abundant as they are from Alachua County northward. The city is also an important way station for automobile travelers, as it is located nearly midway between Atlanta and Miami, five hours from Miami, and five from Atlanta.
The North Florida area in which Gainesville is located is known to natives as the "end of the South." This is most likely due to the fact that south of Alachua County or Marion County, starting somewhere north of Orlando, there are fewer native Floridians (and effectively native Southerners) and the sprawling development that defines South and Central Florida begins. However, it should be noted that due to large levels of migration, much of it related to the University of Florida, the western sector of the city holds more in common culturally and visually with Central and Southern Florida, whereas the eastern sector of the city holds more in common culturally and visually with "the South".

Climate
The destruction of the city's landmark Victorian courthouse in the 1960s, which some considered unnecessary, brought the idea of historic preservation to the attention of the community. The bland county building which replaced the grand courthouse became known to some locals as the "air conditioner." Additional destruction of other historic buildings in the downtown followed as the city tried to modernize, but succeeded in diminishing the city's historic charm. After many years of little progress, revitalization of the city's core has picked up, and many parking lots and underutilized buildings are being replaced with infill development and near-campus housing which blend in with existing historic structures. There is talk of rebuilding a replica of the old courthouse on a parking lot one block from the original location.
Helping in this effort are the number of areas and buildings which have been added to the National Register of Historic Places. Dozens of examples of restored Victorian and Queen Anne style residences constructed in the city's agricultural heyday of the 1880s and 1890s can be found in the following districts:
Historic structures on the Register in and around downtown are:
There are three listings for places on the outskirts of Gainesville:

Northeast Gainesville Residential District
Southeast Gainesville Residential District
Pleasant Street Historic District
Bailey Plantation House (1854)
Matheson Center Home (1867)
Thomas Hotel (1928)
The Old Post Office (now the Hippodrome State Theatre) (1913)
Masonic Temple (1913)
Seagle Building (1937), thirteen stories, downtown's only "skyscraper."
Baird Hardware Company Warehouse (1910)
Cox Furniture Store (1887)
Cox Furniture Warehouse (c. 1890)
Epworth Hall (1884)
Old Gainesville Depot (1850s)
Mary Phifer McKenzie House (1895)
Star Garage (1903)
Liberty Hill Schoolhouse (????)
Boulware Springs Water Works (1895)
Kanapaha (c. 1854-56) Cityscape
As of the census

Demographics
Gainesville has a fairly well-known punk and ska music scene and has spawned a number of bands including Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, Less Than Jake, The Usuals, Hot Water Music (hence The Draft), Against Me!, Sister Hazel, and For Squirrels. It is also the location of the independent label No Idea Records and the annual underground rock festival known as The Fest, which is co-operated by No Idea. The hip hop scene is just as well known with artists such as Ciara, Lil Boosie, Young Jeezy, Snoop Dogg, and in her earlier years Lil Mama, performing in the area.
Gainesville's reputation as an independent music mecca can be traced back to October 1984 when a local music video station was brought on the air. The station was called TV-69, broadcast on UHF 69 and was owned by Cozzin Communications. The channel drew a lot of local media attention thanks in part to its promotion by famous comedian Bill Cosby, who was part-owner of that station when it started. TV-69 featured many videos by punk and indy-label bands and even had several locally produced videos ("Clone Love" by a local parody band, and a Dinosaur Jr song).
Cultural facilities include the Florida Museum of Natural History, Harn Museum of Art, the Hippodrome State Theatre, Curtis M. Phillips Center for the Performing Arts, and The Civic Media Center. Smaller theaters include the Acrosstown Repertory Theatre (ART) and the Gainesville Community Playhouse (GCP). GCP is the oldest community theatre group in Florida, and last year christened a new theatre building.
Numerous guides such as the 2004 book Cities Ranked and Rated: More than 400 Metropolitan Areas Evaluated in the U.S. and Canada have mentioned Gainesville's low cost of living. The restaurants near the University of Florida also tend to be inexpensive. The property taxes are high to offset the cost of the university, as the university's land is tax-exempt. However, the median home cost remains slightly below the national average, and Gainesville residents, like all Floridians, do not pay state income taxes.
This city's job market scored only 6 points out of a possible 100 in the Cities Ranked and Rated guide, as the downside to the low cost of living is an extremely weak local job market that is oversupplied with college-educated residents. The University of Florida, the Shands Healthcare system (a private-public-university partnership), and the city government are the only major employers for the city. The median income in Gainesville is slightly below the U.S. average.
The east side of Gainesville houses the majority of the African-American community within the city, while the west side consists of the mainly white student and resident population. There are also large-scale planned communities on the far west side, most notably Haile Plantation, which was built on the site of a former plantation.
Gainesville is informally called "Hogtown" by many current and former residents, after Hogtown Creek, which runs through the city and was the original name of a town nearby, which was eventually incorporated into the growing city. It was the center of the Gainesville Eight case in the 1970s, and is known to some as the Berkeley of the South. This nickname was probably afforded to Gainesville because of the presence of a relatively prestigious university, and the liberal tendencies of its voting base. All of the counties surrounding Alachua County vote heavily Republican, while Gainesville votes strongly Democratic. In the 2000 election there was a 15% gap in votes in Alachua county between Gore and Bush, while Nader received under 4%. This liberal lean is attributed to the presence of the University in tandem with the presence of a large black community that consistently votes Democratic.
The city is characterized by its medium size, semi-rural location (about 90 minutes driving time away from Jacksonville or Orlando), and large public university. Suburban sprawl has, as of late, become a concern for the city commissioners. However, the "New Urbanization" plan to gentrify the area between historic Downtown and the University of Florida may slow the growth of suburban sectors and spark a migration toward upper-level apartments in the inner city. The area immediately north of the University of Florida is also seeing active redevelopment.
The National Coalition for the Homeless cited Gainesville in 2004 as the 5th meanest city for their criminalization of homelessness.

Culture
All of the Gainesville urban area is served by the School Board of Alachua County, which has some 75 different institutions in the county, most of which are in the Gainesville area. Gainesville is also home to the University of Florida and Santa Fe Community College. The University of Florida is a major financial boost to the community, and hundreds of thousands of dollars in additional revenues are created by the athletic events that occur at UF, including SEC football games.
Other educational institutions include Saint Leo University, City College/Gainesville Campus, P.K. Yonge Developmental Research School, Gainesville High School, Eastside High School, Buchholz High School, Santa Fe High School and Saint Francis Catholic High School.
The Alachua County Library District provides public library service to a county-wide population of approximately 190,655. The Library District has reciprocal borrowing agreements with the surrounding counties of Baker, Bradford, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Gilchrist, Lafayette, Levy, Marion, Putnam and Union. These agreements are designed to facilitate access to the most conveniently located library facility regardless of an individual's county of residence.

Education
Gainesville has an extensive road system, which is served by Interstate 75, and several Florida State Routes, including State routes 20, 24, and 26, among others. Gainesville is also served by US 441 and nearby US 301, which gives a direct route to Jacksonville, Ocala, and Orlando. The primary intersection in the city is the intersection of 13th Street (US 441), the main north-south route, and University Avenue (SR 26) the main east-west route. This intersection is at the northeast corner of the University of Florida campus and thirteen blocks west of the center of downtown, where Main Street intersects University Avenue.
The city's streets are set up on a grid system with four quadrants (NW, NE, SW and SE). All streets are numbered, except for a few major thoroughfares which are often named for the towns to which they lead (such as Waldo Road (SR 24), Hawthorne Road (SR 20), Williston Road (SR 121), Archer Road (also SR 24) and Newberry Road (SR 26). Residents sometimes use the acronym APRiL to remember the orientation of the streets on the grid: all streets with the suffix Avenue, Place, Road, or Lane run east-west. Any other suffix denotes a street that runs north-south.
Daily Amtrak service to and from Waldo, 12 miles (19 km) NE of the city, has been replaced with Amtrak shuttle buses which re-connect with the rail system further south. Full Amtrak service is available at Palatka, 32 miles (51 km) to the east.
In addition to its extensive road network, Gainesville is also served by Gainesville Regional Transit System, or RTS, which is the fourth largest mass transit system in the state. The area is also served by Gainesville Regional Airport in the northeast part of the city, with daily service to Miami, Tampa, Atlanta, and Charlotte.

Transportation
Gainesville is served by the following Newspapers:

The Gainesville Sun
The Independent Florida Alligator Media

Florida Museum of Natural History (including the Butterfly Rainforest exhibit)
Harn Museum of Art
Hippodrome State Theatre
Kanapaha Botanical Gardens
University of Florida
The Devil's Millhopper
Payne's Prairie
Civic Media Center
San Felasco Hammock Preserve State Park
Lake Alice
Ben Hill Griffin Stadium at Florida Field
Stephen C. O'Connell Center
Newnan's Lake
Ligature Design Symposium
Gainesville Raceway Points of interest
This section has been tagged since July 2007.
Celebrities that live or have lived in Gainesville include:

Notable residents

Individuals

Aslyn, singer/songwriter Musicians

Lisa Nicole Carson, actress Actors/Performers
Chris Leak, NFL Draft pick

Corey Brewer, NBA Draft pick
Lyubov Denisova, Marathon runner
Doug Dickey, Hall of Fame Football Coach
Ric Flair, professional wrestling personality
Taurean Green, NBA Draft pick
Al Horford, NBA Draft pick
Darrell Jackson, football player
Marty Liquori, Olympic track & field athlete and TV announcer
Roger Maris, baseball player (first to break Babe Ruth's home run record)
Andrew Miller, baseball player
Heather Mitts, soccer player
Rodney Mullen, professional skateboarder
Joakim Noah, NBA Draft pick
Clinton Portis, football player
Chris Richard, NBA Draft pick
Emmitt Smith, professional football player
Steve Spurrier, football player and coach
Abby Wambach, soccer player
Bernard Williams, sprinter and Olympic gold medalist
Jack Youngblood, professional football player & NFL Hall of Famer Athletes

Kiki Carter, environmental activist, organizer, musician, writer
Michael Connelly, multiple-bestselling thriller/mystery writer
Harry Crews, Southern Gothic author
Nancy Yi Fan, children's book author
Joe Haldeman, science fiction author
Tom Meek, newspaper columnist and writer Other Notable Individuals
Other celebrity ties to Gainesville include Faye Dunaway, who went to the University of Florida, Malcolm Gets, who grew up there, graduated from the university, and wrote and performed at the Community Playhouse and the Hippodrome, and Bob Vila, who graduated from the College of Journalism and Communications. Renee Richards lived in Gainesville for a time.

Against Me!
Aleka's Attic
As Friends Rust
The Draft
Holopaw
Hot Water Music
Less than Jake
Mudcrutch
Rehasher
Sister Hazel

2007-11-28T09:25:00.001-08:00

Lillian Diana Gish (October 14, 1893 – February 27, 1993), was an Oscar-nominated American actress. The American Film Institute named Gish 17th among the greatest female stars of all time.

Early life
Their first role was in Griffith's short film An Unseen Enemy. Lillian went on to star in many of Griffith's most acclaimed films, among these The Birth of a Nation (as Elsie), Intolerance, Broken Blossoms, Way Down East, and Orphans of the Storm.
Having appeared in over 25 short films and features in her first two years as a movie actress, Lillian became a major star, becoming known as "The First Lady of the Silent Screen" and appearing in lavish productions, frequently of literary works such as The Scarlet Letter (1926). MGM released her from her contract in 1928 after the failure of The Wind, now recognized by many as among her finest performances and one of the most distinguished works of the late silent period.
She directed one film, Remodeling Her Husband (1920), when D.W. Griffith took his unit on location -- he told Gish that he thought the crew would work harder for a girl. Gish apparently preferred to remain in front of the camera rather than behind it, since she never directed again. She told reporters at the time that directing was a man's job.
With her debut in talkies only moderately successful, she acted on the stage for the most part in the 1930s and early 1940s, appearing with distinction in roles as varied as Ophelia in Guthrie McClintic's landmark 1936 production of Hamlet (with John Gielgud and Judith Anderson) and Marguerite in a limited run of La Dame aux Camélias. Of the former, she said, with pride, "I played a lewd Ophelia!," contrasting the role with the virginal "ga-ga babies" she had tired of portraying on screen.
Returning to movies, Gish was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1946 for Duel in the Sun. She appeared in films from time to time for the rest of her life, notably in Night of the Hunter (1955) and A Wedding (1978). She was considered for various roles in Gone with the Wind ranging from Ellen O'Hara, Scarlett's mother to the red-headed prostitute Belle Watling.
Gish made numerous television appearances from the early 1950s into the late 1980s. Her most acclaimed television work was starring in the original production of The Trip to Bountiful in 1953. She appeared as Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in the short-lived 1965 Broadway musical Anya.
In addition to her latter-day acting appearances, Gish became one of the leading advocates on the lost art of the silent film, often giving speeches and touring to screenings of classic works. In 1975 she hosted The Silent Years, a PBS film program of silent films.
Gish received a special Academy Award in 1971 "for superlative artistry and for distinguished contribution to the progress of motion pictures." In 1984 she received an American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement Award, only the second female recipient (Bette Davis was first in 1977) and only recipient who was a major figure in the silent era. She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1720 Vine Street.
Her last film role was in The Whales of August in 1987 at the age of 93, with Vincent Price, Bette Davis, who was dying of cancer, and Ann Sothern, who earned her only Academy Award nomination for her final film performance.
Her final professional appearance was a cameo on the 1988 studio recording of Jerome Kern's Show Boat starring Frederica von Stade and Jerry Hadley, in which she affectingly spoke the few lines of The Old Lady on the Levee in the final scene. The last words of her century-spanning career: "Good night, dear."
Some in the entertainment industry were angry that Gish had not received an Oscar nomination for her role in The Whales of August, despite the fact that it was obviously her swan song. Gish, herself, was more complacent, remarking that it saved her the trouble of "losing to Cher" (who did, in fact, win the Oscar for her performance in Moonstruck). Ironically enough, Cher's then-boyfriend, Rob Camiletti, confided to a friend before the nominations were announced that, while Cher deserved to win the Oscar, she didn't have a chance of winning because the Academy would inevitably give it to Lillian Gish.

Career
The association between Gish and Griffith was so close that some suspected a romantic connection, an issue never acknowledged by Gish although several of their associates were certain they were at least briefly involved. For the remainder of her life she always referred to him as "Mr. Griffith".
She was involved with Charles Duell (a producer) and the drama critic and editor George Jean Nathan. Gish's association with Duell was something of a tabloid scandal in the 1920s after he sued her and made the details of their relationship public.
During the period of political turmoil in the United States that lasted from the outbreak of World War II in Europe until the attack on Pearl Harbor, she was unable to find work in Hollywood due to being blacklisted for her outspoken non-interventionist stance. She was an active member of the America First Committee, a controversial anti-intervention organization founded by retired General Robert E. Wood with aviation pioneer Charles Lindbergh as its leading spokesman.[1]
She maintained a very close relationship with her sister Dorothy, as well as with Mary Pickford for her entire life. One of her closest friends was actress Helen Hayes. Gish was the godmother of Hayes' son James MacArthur.
She was a Republican.
She died in her sleep on February 27, 1993 as a result of heart failure aged 99. Her estate, which she left to Helen Hayes, who died a month later, was valued at several million dollars, and went to provide prizes for artistic excellence.
The main street in Massillon, Ohio is named after Gish, who had lived there during an early period of her life and fondly referred to it as her hometown throughout her career. She was interred beside her sister Dorothy at St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church Columbarium in the undercroft of the church in the heart of New York City.

Filmography
Autobiographical:
Biographical & Other:

The Movies, Mr. Griffith, and Me (with Ann Pinchot) (Prentice-Hall, 1969)
Dorothy and Lillian Gish (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973)
An Actor's Life For Me (with Selma G. Lanes) (Viking Penguin, 1987)
Lillian Gish an Interpretation - Edward Wagenknecht (University of Washington, 1927)
Life and Lillian Gish - Albert Bigelow Paine (Macmillan, 1932)
Star Acting - Gish, Garbo, Davis - Charles Affron (E.P. Dutton, 1977)
A Moment with Miss Gish - Peter Bogdanovich (Santa Teresa Press, 1995)
Lillian Gish A Life on Stage and Screen - Stuart Oderman (McFarland & Company, 2000)
Lillian Gish Her Legend, Her Life - Charles Affron (Scribner, 2001) Books

Gish's life is documented in Terry Sanders' 1988 documentary Lillian Gish: An Actor's Life for Me.
Actress Jeanne Moreau produced a documentary on Lillian in the 1980s that has not been released. Documentaries about Lillian Gish

1893 Born in Springfield, Ohio on October 14
1912 Appeared in her first film, D.W. Griffith's An Unseen Enemy
1920 US Census in Mamaroneck, New York as "Lillian Gish"
1987 The Whales of August as final film
1993 Death in Manhattan on February 27 Trivia

Women's Cinema

2007-11-27T09:10:00.001-08:00

Ferdinand Foch OM GCB (October 2, 1851 – March 20, 1929) was a French soldier, military theorist, and writer credited with possessing "the most original and subtle mind in the French Army" in the early 20th century. He served as general in the French Army during World War I and was made Marshal of France in its final year, 1918. Shortly after the start of the Spring Offensive, Germany's final attempt to win the war, Foch was chosen as supreme commander of the allied armies, a position that he held until November 11, 1918, when he accepted the German Surrender.
He advocated peace terms that would make Germany unable to ever pose a threat to France again. His words after the Treaty of Versailles, "This is not a peace. It is an armistice for 20 years," would prove prophetic.

Early life
On the outbreak of the war, Foch was in command of XX Corps, part of the Second Army of General de Castelnau. On August 14 the corps advanced towards the Sarrebourg-Morhange line, taking heavy casualties in the Battle of the Frontiers. The defeat of XV Corps to its right forced Foch into retreat. Foch acquitted himself well, covering the withdrawal to Nancy and the Charmes Gap, before lauching a counter-attack that prevented the Germans from crossing the Meurthe.
He was then selected to command the newly formed Ninth Army, which he was to command during the Battle of the Marne and the Race to the Sea. With his Chief of Staff Maxime Weygand, Foch managed to do this while the whole French Army was in full retreat. Only a week after taking command of 9th Army, he was forced to fight a series of defensive actions to prevent a German breakthrough. It was then that he spoke the famous words: "Hard pressed on my right. My center is yielding. Impossible to maneuver. Situation excellent. I am attacking." His counter-attack was an implementation of the theories he had developed during his staff college days, and succeeded in stopping the German advance. Foch received further reinforcements from the Fifth Army and, following another attack on his forces, counter-attacked again on the Marne. The Germans dug in before eventually retreating. Foch had been instrumental in stopping the great retreat and stabilising the Allied position.
Foch's successes gained him a further promotion, on October 4, when he was appointed Deputy Commander-in-Chief with responsibility for the Northern Army Group. When the Germans attacked on October 13, they narrowly failed to break through the British and French lines. They tried again at the end of the month during the First Battle of Ypres; this time suffering terrible casualties. Foch had again succeeded in co-ordinating a defence and winning against the odds. In October 1914, he was appointed to joint commander in chief with General Joffre. In 1915, he conducted the Artois Offensive, and, in 1916, the Battle of the Somme. He was strongly criticised for his tactics and the heavy casualties that were suffered by the Allied armies during these battles, and in December 1916 was removed from command, by General Joffre, and sent to command in Italy; Joffre was himself sacked days later.
Just a few months later, after the failure of General Nivelle, Foch was recalled and promoted to Chief of the General Staff under General Pétain.
On March 26, 1918, Foch was appointed Allied Supreme Commander with the title of Généralissime ("supreme General") with the job of co-ordinating the activities of the Allied armies. Despite being surprised by the German offensive on the Chemin des Dames, Foch prevented the advance of the German forces during the great Spring Offensive of 1918 at the Second Battle of Marne in July 1918. On 6 August 1918, Foch was made Marshal of France. Along with the British commander Field Marshal Haig, Foch planned the Grand Offensive, opening on September 26, 1918, which led to the defeat of Germany. Foch accepted the German surrender in November. On the day of the armistice, he was elected to the Académie des Sciences. Ten days later, he was unanimously elected to the Académie française.

Foch and World War I
In January 1919, at the Paris Peace Conference Foch presented a memorandum to the Allied plenipotentiaries in which he stated:
Henceforward the Rhine ought to be the Western military frontier of the German countries. Henceforward Germany ought to be deprived of all entrance and assembling ground, that is, of all territorial sovereignty on the left bank of the river, that is, of all facilities for invading quickly, as in 1914, Belgium, Luxembourg, for reaching the coast of the North Sea and threatening the United Kingdom, for outflanking the natural defences of France, the Rhine, Meuse, conquering the Northern Provinces and entering the Parisian area.

Paris Peace Conference
Foch was made a British Field Marshal in 1919, and, for his advice during the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1920, as well as his pressure on Germany during the Great Poland Uprising, he was awarded with the title of Marshal of Poland in 1923.
On November 1, 1921 Foch was in Kansas City to take part in the groundbreaking ceremony for the Liberty Memorial that was being constructed there. Also present that day were Lieutenant General Baron Jacques of Belgium, Admiral David Beatty of Great Britain, General Armando Diaz of Italy and General John J. Pershing of the United States. One of the main speakers was Vice President Calvin Coolidge of the United States. In 1935 bas-reliefs of Foch, Jacques, Diaz and Pershing by sculptor Walker Hancock were added to the memorial.
Foch died on March 20th, 1929, and was interred in Les Invalides, next to Napoleon and many other famous French soldiers and officers.
A statue of Foch was set up at the Compiègne Armistice site when the area was converted into a national memorial. This statue was the one item left undisturbed by the Germans following their defeat of France in June, 1940. Following the signing of France's surrender on June 21, the Germans ravaged the area surrounding the railway car in which both the 1918 and 1940 surrenders had taken place. The statue was left standing, to view nothing but a wasteland.
A heavy cruiser and an aircraft carrier were named in his honour, as well as an early district of Gdynia, Poland. The latter was, however, renamed by the Communist government after World War II. Nevertheless, one of the major avenues of the town of Bydgoszcz, located in then in the Polish corridor, holds his name -as sign of gratitude for campaigning for Free Poland. A street in Paris is named after him, Avenue Foch, one in Grenoble, Boulevard Marechal Foch, as are Mariscal Foch in Quito, Ecuador, Rue Foch - a luxury shopping street in downtown Beirut, Lebanon, and Marshall Foch Street in the Lakeview neighborhood of New Orleans, Louisiana.Fochville in South Africa was also named in his honor. A statue of Foch stands near to Victoria Station in London.

Notes

Army Manoeuvres of 1912

2007-11-26T08:34:00.001-08:00

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Religious persecution is systematic mistreatment of an individual or group due to their religious affiliation.
In a secular state, claims of religious persecution are effectively a demand of the fulfilment of Freedom of religion and Religious pluralism. In a non-secular state, they are laments about the intolerance of the state religion and the demand for Religious toleration or disestablishment.
Often it is the alleged persecution of individuals within a group in the attempt to maintain their religion identity, or the exercise of power by an individual or organization that causes members of a religious group to suffer. Persecution in this case may refer to unwarranted arrest, false imprisonment, beatings, torture, unjustified execution, denial of benefits, and denial of civil rights and liberties and especially other acts of violence, such as war, torture, and ethnic cleansing.It also may refer to the confiscation or destruction of property, or incitement to hate among other things.
Not only theorists of secularization (who presume a decline of religiosity in general) would willingly assume that religious persecution is a thing of the past. However, with the rise of fundamentalism and religiously related terrorism this assumption has become even more controversial. Indeed, in many countries of the world today, religious persecution is a human rights problem.

Reasons for religious persecution

Main article: Religious intolerance Persecution for heresy and blasphemy
More than 300 Roman Catholics were put to death by English governments between 1535 and 1681 for treason, thus for secular than religious offences. This dramatically worsened the situation of the Catholics in England. English governments continued to fear Popish Plot;

Persecution for political reasons
Out of Egypt came monotheistic Judaism under Moses, its prophet. Among the Ten Commandments of the new religion was one that forbade the worship of any other god than its one true God. When Imperial Rome extended its reach to their area, various conflicts arose.
Out of Judaism came Christianity, which because it was strictly monotheistic and also encouraged conversion was a much more powerful threat to the established pantheistic order than had been Judaism. The Jewish exemption from the requirement to participate in public cults was lifted and the anti-monotheistic religious persecution of the Christians began under Nero.
By the eighth century Christianity had attained a clear ascendancy in Europe and neighboring regions and a period of consolidation began marked by the pursuit of heretics and various other forms of monotheistic religious persecution. Christian monotheistic religious persecution perhaps reached its apex with the Inquisition.
Meanwhile south and east of the Christian empires yet another monotheist religion had arisen: Islam. Generally following the Jewish tradition of tolerance towards non-believers provided they maintained the outward habits of believers, Muslims spread across northern Africa, the Middle East, northern India, and adjoining regions. Those who actively oppose Islam or try to persuade people in their community not to convert to Islam may face persecution or death threats (which may even be carried out). At times, attempts at peaceful persuasion against Islam have led to persecution.
See also: Historical persecution by Christians, Persecution of Ancient Greek religion

Historical persecution
Since the 18th century there have been many occasions where religious persecution has occurred.

Present Period

Main article: Persecution of Bahá'ís Bahá'ís in Iran

Main article: anti-Semitism Judaism
It is estimated that over 1.5 million Christians have been killed by the Janjaweed, the Arab Muslim militia, and even suspected Islamists in northern Sudan since 1984.

Christianity
Some people believe that both the United States and Al-Qaeda are involved in religious persecution. The September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States have been suspected by religious figures of happening because of America's relative secularity; though, it should be noted that Al Qaida never once in their public statements used that as a justification for 9/11 or any other attack. The reasons Al Qaida give for their attacks are the presence of American troops in Saudi Arabia, the location of Islam's holy sites, which they consider sacrilege, the occupation of Muslim territory, and American financial support of Israel.
Christian churches have been bombed in Pakistan and there have been attempted attacks on churches elsewhere. Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Istanbul in Turkey etc have been attacked, mainly because these governments are seen by the extremists to be collaborating with foreign non-Islamic powers.
On the other hand, shortly after September 11 there was a sharp increase of Islamophobia in the United States and the United Kingdom, where Muslims are sometimes attacked in public or even killed [5]. The 21st century "War on terror" was at one point referred to as a "crusade" until the Muslim understanding of the term was pointed out, and abuses by American soldiers during the invasion of Iraq in 2003 (e.g. the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse) made some Muslims felt that they were being persecuted, therefore giving rise to anti-American feelings, coordinated attacks by extremist Islamic groups and insurgency in the Middle East.

United States and Islam

Main article: anti-Mormon United States and Mormonism
The government of People's Republic of China in mainland China has banned the spiritual group Falun Gong and conducted massive crackdown of the group, including using torture and "re-education" camp to force the adherents to abandon Falun Gong. There are reports indicating that the PRC has engaged in organ harvesting from live Falun Gong adherents, among other human rights abuses.

People's Republic of China
Religious persecution and discrimination have been an official part of U.S. governmental policies and law regarding Native Americans. For example, traditional indigenous ceremonies such as the Sun Dance and Ghost Dance were officially outlawed in the late 1800s.
In modern times, charges of religious persecution by the U.S. government against Native Americans continue. These charges have largely centered on the eagle feather law which governs the possession of eagle feathers for religious use, the use of ceremonial peyote, and the repatriation of Native American human remains and cultrual and religious objects found in museums and private collections.
The eagle feather law, which governs the possession and religious use of eagle feathers, was officially written to protect then dwindling eagle populations while still protecting traditional Native American spiritual and religious customs, of which the use of eagles are central. The eagle feather law later met charges of promoting racial and religious discrimination due to the law's provision authorizing the possession of eagle feathers to members of only one ethnic group, Native Americans, and forbidding Native Americans from including non-Native Americans in indigenous customs involving eagle feathers — a common modern practice dating back to the early 1500s.
Peyote, a spineless cactus found in the desert southwest and Mexico, is a commonly used in certain traditions of Native American religion and spirituality, most notably in the Native American Church. Prior to the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) in 1978, and as amended in 1994, the religious use of peyote was not afforded legal protection. This resulted in the arrest of many Native Americans and non-Native Americans participating in traditional indigenous religion and spirituality. Many individuals today encounter harassment and persecution by their employers for ingesting peyote while participating in the Native American Church due to the cactus containing the psychotropic mescaline, a controlled substance.
Native Americans often hold strong personal and spiritual connections to their ancestors and often believe that their remains should rest undisturbed. This has often placed Native Americans at odds with archaeologists who have often dug on Native American burial grounds and other sites considered sacred, often removing artifacts and human remains – an act considered sacrilegious by many Native Americans. For years, Native American communities decried the removal of ancestral human remains and cultural and religious objects, charging such activities as acts of genocide, religious persecution, and discrimination. Many Native Americans called on the government, museums, and private collectors for the return of remains and sensitive objects for reburial. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), which gained passage in 1990, established a means for Native Americans to request the return or "repatriation" of human remains and other sensitive cultural, religious, and funery items held by federal agencies and federally assisted museums and institutions.

United States and Native Americans

"I have come from a country where people are hanged if they talk." — Leonhard Euler
"Religious persecution has come about because others are too afraid to learn about something new..." — Zachary Jensen
"No orthodox church ever had power that it did not endeavor to make people think its way by force and flame. And yet every church that ever was established commenced in the minority, and while it was in the minority advocated free speech -- every one. John Calvin, the founder of the Presbyterian Church, while he lived in France, wrote a book on religious toleration in order to show that all men had an equal right to think; and yet that man afterward, clothed in a little authority, forgot all his sentiments about religious liberty, and had poor Serviettes burned at the stake, for differing with him on a question that neither of them knew anything about. In the minority, Calvin advocated toleration -- in the majority, he practiced murder." — Robert Green Ingersoll. Literature

2007-11-25T09:11:00.001-08:00

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List of tallest buildings in Leeds
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Category:UK transmitter sites

2007-11-24T08:38:00.001-08:00

The Requiem (from Latin requiem, accusative case of requies, rest) or Requiem Mass (informally, a funeral Mass), also known formally (in Latin) as the Missa pro defunctis or Missa defunctorum, is a liturgical service of the Roman Catholic Church, Anglo-Catholic and High Church Anglicans, as well as certain Lutheran Churches in the United States. There is also a requiem, with a wholly different ritual form and texts, that is observed in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches. The common theme of requiems is prayer for the salvation of the soul(s) of the departed, and it is used both at services immediately preceding a burial, and on occasions of more general remembrance.
"Requiem" is also the title of various musical compositions used in such liturgical services or as concert pieces as settings of the portions of that Mass which have been traditionally sung in the Roman Catholic liturgy.
While the prayers in the regular Mass as the Introit and Gradual change according to the Calendar of Saints, the text for the requiem Mass is particularly fixed. Originally such funeral musical compositions were meant to be performed in liturgical service, with monophonic chant. Eventually the dramatic character began to appeal to composers to an extent that made the requiem a genre of its own.

The Roman Rite liturgy
For many centuries the texts of the requiem were sung to Gregorian melodies. The Requiem by Johannes Ockeghem, written sometime in the latter half of the 15th century, is the earliest surviving polyphonic setting. There was a setting by the elder composer Dufay, possibly earlier, which is now lost: Ockeghem's may have been modelled on it. Other composers who wrote Requiems before 1550 include Pedro de Escobar, Antoine de Févin, Cristóbal Morales, and Pierre de La Rue; that by La Rue is probably the second oldest, after Ockeghem's.
Over 2,000 requiems have been composed to the present day. Typically the Renaissance settings, especially those not written on the Iberian Peninsula, may be performed a cappella (i.e. without necessary accompanying instrumental parts), whereas beginning around 1600 composers more often preferred to use instruments to accompany a choir, and also include vocal soloists. There is great variation between compositions in how much of liturgical text is set to music.
Most composers omit sections of the liturgical prescription, most frequently the Gradual and the Tract. Fauré omits the Dies iræ, while the very same text had often been set by French composers in previous centuries as a stand-alone work.
Sometimes composers divide an item of the liturgical text into two or more movements; because of the length of its text, the Dies iræ is the most frequently divided section of the text (as with Mozart, for instance). The Introit and Kyrie, being immediately adjacent in the actual Roman Catholic liturgy, are often composed as one movement.
Musico-thematic relationships among movements of Requiems can be found as well.

Musical compositions
Some settings contain additional texts, such as the devotional motet Pie Jesu (in the settings of Dvořák, Fauré, Duruflé, and Lloyd Webber—Fauré set it as a soprano solo in the center). Libera me (from the Absolution) and In paradisum (from the burial service, which in the case of a funeral follows after the Mass) conclude some compositions. Other added movements have been composed as well, such as the English Psalms Out of the Deep and The Lord is My Shepherd included in John Rutter's setting.

Added movements

Libera me, Domine, de morte æterna, in die illa tremenda, quando coeli movendi sunt et terra, dum veneris iudicare sæculum per ignem. Tremens factus sum ego et timeo, dum discussio venerit atque ventura ira. Dies illa, dies iræ, calamitatis, et miseriæ, dies magna et amara valde. Requiem æternam dona eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceat eis.

("Deliver me, O Lord, from eternal death on that fearful day, when the heavens and the earth are moved, when you will come to judge the world with fire. I am made to tremble and I fear, because of the judgment that will come, and also the coming wrath. That day, day of wrath, calamity, and misery, day of great and exceeding bitterness. Grant them eternal rest, O Lord, and let perpetual light shine upon them.")

Libera me

In paradisum deducant te Angeli; in tuo adventu suscipiant te martyres, et perducant te in civitatem sanctam Ierusalem. Chorus angelorum te suscipiat, et cum Lazaro quondam paupere æternam habeas requiem.

("May angels lead you into Paradise; may the martyrs receive you at your coming and lead you to the holy city of Jerusalem. May a choir of angels receive you, and with Lazarus, who once was poor, may you have eternal rest.")

In paradisum

Main article: Pie Jesu Pie Jesu
Beginning in the 18th century and continuing through the 19th, many composers wrote what are effectively concert requiems, which by virtue of employing forces too large, or lasting such a considerable duration, prevent them being readily used in an ordinary funeral service; the requiems of Gossec, Berlioz, Verdi, and Dvořák are essentially dramatic concert oratorios. A counter-reaction to this tendency came from the Cecilian movement, which recommended restrained accompaniment for liturgical music, and frowned upon the use of operatic vocal soloists.

Non-Roman Catholic requiems

Main article: Kaddish Jewish Mourners' Kaddish

Main article: Memorial service (Orthodox) Eastern Orthodox Requiem
The Anglican Book of Common Prayer contains seven texts which are collectively known as "funeral sentences"; several composers have written settings of these seven texts, which are generally known collectively as a "burial service." Composers who have set the Anglican burial service to music include Thomas Morley, Orlando Gibbons, and Henry Purcell. The text of these seven sentences, from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, is:

I am the resurrection and the life, saith the Lord: he that believeth in me, though he were dead, yet shall he live: and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die.
I know that my Redeemer liveth, and that he shalt stand at the latter day upon the earth. And though after my skin worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh shall I see God: whom I shall see for myself, and mine eyes shall behold, and not another.
We brought nothing into this world, and it is certain we can carry nothing out. The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the Name of the Lord.
Man that is born of a woman hath but a short time to live, and is full of misery. He cometh up, and is cut down, like a flower; he fleeth as it were a shadow, and never continueth in one stay.
In the midst of life we are in death: of whom may we seek for succour, but of thee, O Lord, who for our sins art justly displeased? Yet, O Lord God most holy, O Lord most mighty, O holy and most merciful Saviour, deliver us not into the bitter pains of eternal death.
Thou knowest, Lord, the secrets of our hearts; shut not thy merciful ears to our prayer; but spare us, Lord most holy, O God most mighty, O holy and merciful Saviour, thou most worthy judge eternal, suffer us not, at our last hour, for any pains of death, to fall from thee.
I heard a voice from heaven, saying unto me, Write, From henceforth blessed are the dead which die in the Lord: even so saith the Spirit: for they rest from their labours. Anglican burial service
In the 20th century the requiem evolved in several new directions. The genre of war requiems is perhaps the most notable, which comprise of compositions dedicated to the memory of people killed in wartime. These often include extra-liturgical poems of a pacifist or non-liturgical nature; for example, the War Requiem of Benjamin Britten juxtaposes the Latin text with the poetry of Wilfred Owen, and Robert Steadman's Mass in Black intersperses environmental poetry and prophecies of Nostradamus. The several Holocaust requiems may be regarded as a specific subset of this type. The World Requiem of John Foulds was written in the aftermath of the First World War and initiated the Royal British Legion's annual festival of remembrance.
Lastly, the 20th century saw the development of secular requiems, written for public performance without specific religious observance (e.g., Kabalevsky's War Requiem, to poems by Robert Rozhdestvensky). Herbert Howells's unaccompanied Requiem uses Psalm 23 ("The Lord is my shepherd"), Psalm 121 ("I will lift up mine eyes"), "Salvator mundi" ("O Saviour of the world," in English), "Requiem aeternam" (two different settings), and "I heard a voice from heaven." Some composers have written purely instrumental works bearing the title of requiem, as exemplified by the most famous of these, Britten's Sinfonia da Requiem. Igor Stravinsky's Requiem canticles mixes instrumental movements with segments of the "Introit," "Dies irae," "Pie Jesu," and "Libera me."

20th century developments
See also: Requiems
Many composers have written Requiems. Some of the most famous include:

Johannes Ockeghem's Requiem, the earliest to survive, written sometime in the mid-to-late 15th century
Victoria's Requiem of 1603, (part of a longer Office for the Dead)
Mozart's Requiem in D minor (Mozart died before its completion)
Berlioz' Grande Messe des Morts
Verdi's Requiem
Brahms' Ein deutsches Requiem, based on passages from Luther's Bible.
Fauré's Requiem in D minor
Dvořák's Requiem, Op. 89
Britten's War Requiem, which incorporated poems by Wilfred Owen.
Duruflé's Requiem, based almost exclusively on the chants from the Graduale Romanum. Famous Requiems

Other Requiem composers

Giovanni Francesco Anerio
Gianmatteo Asola
Giulio Belli
Antoine Brumel
Manuel Cardoso
Joan Cererols
Pierre Certon
Clemens non Papa
Guillaume Dufay (lost)
Pedro de Escobar
Antoine de Févin
Francisco Guerrero
Jacobus de Kerle
Orlande de Lassus
Duarte Lobo
Jean Maillard
Jacques Mauduit
Manuel Mendes
Cristóbal de Morales
Johannes Ockeghem (the earliest to survive)
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina
Costanzo Porta
Johannes Prioris
Jean Richafort
Pierre de la Rue
Claudin de Sermisy
Jacobus Vaet
Tomás Luis de Victoria Renaissance

Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber
Marc-Antoine Charpentier
Jean Gilles
Claudio Monteverdi (lost)
Michael Praetorius
Heinrich Schütz
Jan Dismas Zelenka
Antonio Lotti (Requiem in F Major) Baroque

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Luigi Cherubini
Florian Leopold Gassmann
François-Joseph Gossec
Michael Haydn
Andrea Luchesi
José Maurício Nunes Garcia Classical period

Hector Berlioz
João Domingos Bomtempo
Johannes Brahms
Anton Bruckner
Carl Czerny
Gaetano Donizetti
Antonín Dvořák
Gabriel Fauré
Charles Gounod
Franz Liszt
Max Reger
Camille Saint-Saëns
Robert Schumann
Franz von Suppé
Charles Villiers Stanford
Giuseppe Verdi
Richard Wetz
See also: Messa per Rossini Romantic era

Malcolm Archer
Vyacheslav Artyomov
Osvaldas Balakauskas
Alfred Desenclos
Ralph Dunstan
Maurice Duruflé
Hans Werner Henze
Herbert Howells
Karl Jenkins
Joonas Kokkonen
Cyrillus Kreek
György Ligeti
Frigyes Hidas
Frank Martin
Krzysztof Penderecki
Ildebrando Pizzetti
Jocelyn Pook
Zbigniew Preisner
John Rutter
Alfred Schnittke
Valentin Silvestrov
Robert Steadman
Igor Stravinsky
Toru Takemitsu
John Tavener
Erkki-Sven Tüür
Andrew Lloyd Webber Post-romantic/20th century

Kentaro Sato
Karl Jenkins
Tyzen Hsiao New Era/21st century
English with Latin
German
French, English, German with Latin
Polish with Latin
Russian
Taiwanese

Benjamin Britten
Evgeni Kostitsyn
Herbert Howells
John Rutter
Michael Praetorius
Heinrich Schütz
Franz Schubert
Johannes Brahms
Edison Denisov
Krzysztof Penderecki
Zbigniew Preisner
Sergei Taneyev - Cantata John of Damascus, Op.1 (Text by Alexey Tolstoy)
Dmitri Kabalevsky - War Requiem (Text by Robert Rozhdestvensky)
Elena Firsova - Requiem, Op.100 (Text by Anna Akhmatova)
Tyzen Hsiao - Ilha Formosa: Requiem for the Formosan Martyrs (Text by Yang-Min Lin), 2001 Requiems by language (other than purely Latin)

The Swedish progressive death metal band Opeth has a song named "Requiem" on their 1995 album Orchid.
Jethro Tull has a song named "Requiem" on their album Minstrel in the Gallery.
Alexander Borodin composed a "Requiem" piece for the collaborative piano work Paraphrases, which is a set of pieces based on the theme commonly known as "Chopsticks".
In a parody of a medieval geisslerlied, the monks in the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail chant the Pie Jesu while striking themselves with punch card sized wooden boards.
"Requiem of Spirit" was a song in the popular Nintendo 64 video game The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time.
Requiem for a Dream was a novel written by Hubert Selby, Jr. and was later adapted into a critically acclaimed film (2000) by Darren Aronofsky.
Jesper Kyd is a popular composer who has composed Requiem songs for many videogames, the Hitman series being among the most popular.
In 1983 Pink Floyd released an album called The Final Cut. The album's secondary title was "A Requiem for the Post-War dream".
"Requiem for a Sinner" is the opening track on the 1977 album World Anthem by Canadian hard rock band Frank Marino & Mahogany Rush, and most fans consider it to be one of their best songs.
Requiem is the title of the upcoming, debut album from Hip-Hop artist One-Way.
Requiem is the closing section in Arthur Miller's famous play, Death of a Salesman.
"Requiem for a city", by Mike Oldfield, is the second track of the soundtrack to the movie The Killing Fields.
Black Metal band Sigh based their album Hangman's Hymn on the Catholic Requiem. The album contains sampled sections of the Requiem.
The group Gregorian sang a Requiem (in English/Latin) on their 2004 album The Dark Side.
American musician Jandek released an album called White Box Requiem in 1996.
Requiem is the closing section in Elizabeth (1998).
The punk band Bad Religion has a song named "Requiem for Dissent" on their album New Maps of Hell (2007).
The anime series Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann has a song named "'Libera Me' From Hell" which combines operatic verses from "Libera Me" with rock and rap style music.
The German power metal band Blind Guardian released the song 'Inquisition,' which repeates the Jesu Domine section, in their album Follow the Blind. They also released a song called 'The Script for my Requiem' in the album Immaginations from the Other Side.
The band, I Am Ghost released their newest CD in 2006, Lovers' Requiem, which has two songs containing much of these lyrics, Crossing The River Styx, and The Denouement. They are in the Italian language.
There is a "Requiem for Evita" in Evita
Album from Swedish band Bathory
Requiem is Seymour's Overdrive from Final Fantasy X
Title of a piece by Yoko Kanno for the anime series Wolf's Rain.
Requiem for a Nun a novel by William Faulkner
Requiem is also the name of Siegfried's sword from the Soul Calibur series See also

2007-11-23T07:17:00.001-08:00

The Keelmen of Tyne and Wear were a group of men who worked on the keels, large boats that carried the coal from the banks of both rivers to the waiting collier ships. Because of the shallowness of both rivers, it was difficult for ships of any significant draught to move up river and load with coal from the place where the coal reached the riverside. Thus the need for shallow-draught keels to transport the coal to the waiting ships. The keelmen formed a close-knit and colourful community on both rivers until their eventual demise late in the nineteenth century.

Beginnings of the coal trade
The keels were wooden boats with a pointed stern, so that the bow and stern looked almost the same. They were of shallow draught so that when fully loaded they drew only four and a half feet. The keels were forty feet long and at least 19 feet wide amidships: a very broad configuration. In 1266 the standard load of a keel was set at 20 chaldrons (wagonloads) or approximately 17 tons. After 1497 the keel load was frequently increased, until in 1635 it was set at 21.1 tons. A chaldron was a horse-drawn wagon containing 17 cwt of coal. Keels were supposed to be measured by the Kings Commissioners and given a load mark to show when they were full. The keels had a single mast with a square sail attached to a yardarm and two large oars. They had no rudder and so a large sweep was used for steering when the keel was under sail. The oars were used to row when the wind was not favourable. There were also two iron-shod poles for polling the keel through any shallows. The floor of the hold was only two feet below the gunnel to allow for easy loading. The coal was piled high above the top of the hold with wooden boards used to prevent the cargo from sliding. Each keel was manned by a skipper, two crewmen and a boy, known as a 'pee dee'. The meaning of this title is unknown.

The keels
The keelmen would start by loading coal into the hold from a 'spout', as the riverside chutes were called. The keel would then be taken down river on the ebb tide using the oars, or the sail, if the wind was favourable. The keel would then be taken alongside the waiting collier and the crewmen of the keel would carry out the strenuous work of shovelling the coal into the collier, working even after darkness. Because of the difference between the keel's gunnel and the collier's deck, this could be very arduous work. After a time colliers were constructed in such a manner as to make it easier to load coal into them. In 1819 the keelmen went on strike, and one of their demands was an extra shilling per keel for every foot that the side of the collier exceeded five feet. After completing the loading of the coal, the keelmen would return for another cargo, if there was time left in the day and if the tides allowed.

The keelmen
The Tyneside keelmen were employed by the Newcastle Hostmen and were often in dispute with their employers. They went on strike in 1709, 1710, 1740 and 1750. One grievance held by the keelmen was that the Hostmen, in order to avoid custom duties, would deliberately overload the keels. Duty was paid on each keel-load, so that it paid the owner to load as much coal as possible. This meant that the keel-load gradually increased from 16 tons in 1600 to 21.25 tons in 1695. As the keelmen were paid by the keel-load, they had to work considerably harder for the same pay. Even after the keel-load had been standardised, there were cases of keel owners illegally enlarging the holds to carry more coal, as much as 26.5 tons. In 1719 and 1744, the Tyneside keelmen went on strike in protest at this 'overmeasure'. The 1750 strike was also against 'overmeasure', as well as against 'can-money', the practice of paying part of the keelmen's wages in drink that had to be consumed at 'can-houses', pubs owned by the employers.

Disputes with the Hostmen
The coal export trade from the Wear was slow to develop, but by the seventeenth century there was a thriving trade in exporting coal from the Durham coalfield via the River Wear. The tonnage however was much smaller than on the Tyne; in 1609, 11,648 tons were exported from the Wear compared with 239,000 tons exported from the Tyne. This imbalance changed dramatically during the English Civil War because of the Parliamentarian blockade of the Tyne and their encouragement of the Wearside merchants to make up for the subsequent shortfall in coal for London. Coal exports from the Wear increased by an enormous amount, causing a similar increase in the number of keelmen employed on the river. By time of the Restoration in 1660, trade on the Tyne had recovered, but the river was now only exporting a third more coal than the Wear.

Expansion of the Wear coal trade
In 1699 the keelmen of Newcastle decided to build the Keelmen's Hospital, a charitable foundation for sick and aged keelmen and their families. The keelmen agreed to contribute one penny a tide from the wages of each keel's crew and Newcastle Corporation made land available in Sandgate. The hospital was completed in 1701 at a cost of £2,000. It consisted of fifty chambers giving onto a cloister enclosing a grass court. One matter of contention relating to the hospital was that the funds for its maintenance were kept in the control of the Hostmen, lest they be used as a strike fund by the keelmen. The hospital building still remains in City Road, Newcastle, and is now used for student accommodation.

Impressment in the Royal Navy
About 1750 a new development began to be used on the Tyne. New pits were being sunk further and further away from the river and coal was being brought to the riverbank via wagon ways. Once there, in places accessible by colliers, coal staithes were built to allow coal to be dropped directly into the holds of the colliers without the need for keels. The staithes were short piers that projected out over the river and allowed coal wagons to run on rails to the end. Colliers would moor alongside the end of the staithes and, initially, the coal from the wagons was emptied down chutes into the colliers' holds. Later, to avoid breakage of the coal, the coal wagons were lowered onto the decks of the colliers and were unloaded there. This was the beginning of the end for the keelmen and they realised the threat that the coal staithes posed. Strikes and riots resulted whenever new staithes were opened. In 1794 the Tyneside keelmen went on strike against the use of staithes for loading coal.

Coal staithes
Another threat to the livelihood of the keelmen was the development of steam tugs. During a ten-week strike by the keelmen of both Tyne and Wear against the use of coal staithes, the keel owners installed one of the newly developed steam locomotives in a keel equipped with paddle wheels. The keel was not only able to propel itself, but was able to tow a string of other keels behind it. By 1830, Marshall's shipyard in South Shields had begun to manufacture steam tugs, for the Tyne and for further afield. This development did not threaten the livelihood of the keelmen as completely as the development of the coal staithes.

Improvements in river navigation
By the mid-nineteenth century, less than a fifth of the pits on the Tyne and Wear were using keels to load coal. The introduction of coal staithes and steam tugs had already severely diminished the number of keelmen. The new docks with their efficient coal loading facilities brought the final demise of the keels and the men who worked them. The second half of the nineteenth century was a time of rapid industrial growth on Tyneside and Wearside, so that the keelmen would be readily absorbed within other industries. They are now just a distant memory with little to remind us of them, apart from the Keelmen's Hospital that still stands in Newcastle and the well known local song, "The Keel Row".

2007-11-22T08:35:00.001-08:00

Élisabeth-Louise Vigée-Le Brun (April 16, 1755 - March 30, 1842) was a French painter, and is recognized as the most famous woman painter of the eighteenth century. Her style is neoclassical in exhibiting ideals of simplicity and purity. Her work can also be considered Rococo in its grace, delicacy, and naturalism.
She was born in Paris, Marie Élisabeth-Louise Vigée, the daughter of a painter, from whom she received her first instruction, although she benefited more by the advice of Gabriel François Doyen, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, Joseph Vernet, and other masters of the period.
By the time she was in her early teens, she was painting portraits professionally. After her studio was seized, for practicing without a license, she applied to the Académie de Saint Luc, which willingly exhibited her works in their Salon. On 25 October 1774, she was made a member of the Académie.
In 1776, she married Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Le Brun, a painter and art dealer. She painted portraits of many of the nobility of the day and as her career blossomed, she was invited to the Palace of Versailles to paint Marie Antoinette, the French Queen consort.
So pleased was the queen that over the next several years, Vigée-Le Brun was commissioned to do numerous portraits of the queen, her children, and other members of the royal family and household.
In 1781 she and her husband toured Flanders and the Netherlands where seeing the works of the Flemish masters inspired her to try new techniques. There, she painted portraits of some of the nobility, including the Prince of Nassau.
On May 31, 1783, Vigée Le Brun was accepted as a member of France's Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture as a painter of historical allegory. Adélaïde Labille-Guiard also was admitted on the same day.
The admission of Vigée-Le Brun was opposed on the grounds that her husband was an art dealer, but eventually they were overruled by an order from Louis XVI because Marie-Antoinette put considerable pressure on her husband on behalf of her painter.
The admission of more than one woman on the same day to the Académie encouraged comparisons among the works of the women instead of one woman contrasted with the existing members, who were men.
After the arrest of the royal family during the French Revolution Vigée-Le Brun fled France. She lived and worked for some years in Italy, Austria, and Russia, where her experience in dealing with an aristocratic clientèle was still useful. In Rome, her paintings met with great critical acclaim and she was elected to the Roman Accademia di San Luca.
In Russia, she was received by the nobility and painted numerous members of the family of Catherine the Great. While there, Vigée-Le Brun was made a member of the Academy of Fine Arts of Saint Petersburg.
She was welcomed back to France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I. Much in demand by the élite of Europe, she visited England at the beginning of the nineteenth century and painted the portrait of several British notables including Lord Byron. In 1807 she traveled to Switzerland and was made an honorary member of the Société pour l'Avancement des Beaux-Arts of Geneva.
She published her memoirs in 1835 and 1837, which provide an interesting view of the training of artists at the end of the period dominated by royal academies. Her portrait of fellow neoclassical painter, Hubert Robert, is in Paris at Musee National du Louvre.
Still very active with her painting in her fifties, at that time she purchased a house in Louveciennes, Île-de-France, and lived there until the house was seized by the Prussian Army during the war in 1814. She stayed in Paris until her death on March 30, 1842 when her body was taken back to Louveciennes and buried in the cemetery near her old home.
Her tombstone epitaph states "Ici, enfin, je repose…" (Here, at last, I rest…).
Vigée-Le Brun left a legacy of 660 portraits and 200 landscapes. In addition to private collections, her works may be found at major museums, such as Hermitage Museum, London's National Gallery, in Europe and the United States.

2007-11-20T09:03:00.001-08:00

Oliver "Ollie" Riedel (b. April 11, 1971) is a German musician, most notable for being the bass-guitarist for the German Tanz-Metall ("Dance metal") band Rammstein.

Biography
Riedel was born on 11 April 1971 in Schwerin as an only child.
Growing up, Oliver had relatively good relationships with both of his parents. He attributes this to the small gap in between their ages. As a child, Oliver wasn't a good student, but he made his way through school with the assistance of his mother. Oliver was quite shy, especially during his teenage years, and while his friends partied at discos he would often be found just "hanging around".

Early years
In 1990, at the age of nineteen, Oliver began playing in a folk-fiddle/punk-rock band called The Inchtabokatables.

Musical career
In 1994, Riedel, Till Lindemann, Richard Z. Kruspe, and Christoph "Doom" Schneider entered and won the Berlin Senate Metro beat contest that allowed them to record a four track demo professionally. Paul H. Landers and Christian "Flake" Lorenz would later join the band they named Rammstein.
The six released their first album, Herzeleid (Heartache) in September, 1995. Their second album, Sehnsucht (Longing) was released in 1997, which would later become platinum.
In April 2001, the album Mutter (Mother) was released and a European tour followed, ending on 13 July 2002. It has been reported that at this time the members of Rammstein were seriously discussing whether to continue or not in their present form. It was decided that they should all take some time off and then reconsider whether to continue.
In 2003, Rammstein started work on the fourth album, which was to prove a turning point in Rammstein's sound and maturity. September 2004 saw the fruits of this work in the release of Reise, Reise ("Reise,Reise")

Personal characteristics
On the separation rumours
"We never wanted to, but after Mutter we had some difficult times because the third album is the most difficult one and we had a lot of pressure on us. We also had our differences between the group members and everyone's expectations were different. We took a year to rest, and after that we realized that we wanted to be together and to go on."
On his early family life
Interviewer: Did you have a lot of problems with your parents?
Ollie: Not a lot at all. My parents are quite young, which is good. Because the age difference isn't that big, we had it good with each other. My father and mother also liked the same music as me. We were almost more like friends than family.
Interviewer: But of course you did tease your brothers and sisters...
Ollie: No, because I don't have any, too bad. But if I would have had them, I would definitely have teased them!

2007-11-19T07:49:00.001-08:00

Aire may refer to:
In rivers:
In towns:
In other:
River Aire, a river in Yorkshire, England
Aire (Aisne), a river in the Ardennes département, northern France
Aire River (Switzerland), a river in the Canton of Geneva, in Switzerland
Aire-sur-la-Lys, a town in the Pas-de-Calais département in France
Aire-la-Ville, a municipality in the Canton of Geneva, in Switzerland
Aire-sur-l'Adour, a town of Aquitaine, in the Landes département
Aire, Ardennes, a commune in the Ardennes département in France
Aire (program), a wireless network discovery program for Windows
AIRE, an acronym for Autoimmune Regulator
The Siege of Aire was a military action in 1710 in the War of the Spanish Succession
Aire Diocese in France

2007-11-18T08:25:00.001-08:00

Xenokrates of Sicyon (fl. c.280 BC) was a Greek sculptor and writer, and one of the world's first art historians. Three signed statue bases are all that survive of his work. Pliny the Elder described him as a pupil of either Euthykrates or Teisikrates, and states that he surpassed both in his career, and that he wrote several volumes concerning his craft. Pliny's entire dissertation on the history of sculpture and painting is believed to have been strongly influenced by the work of Xenokrates. He was the art critic most familiar to the Romans of the late Republic, and he greatly influenced their tastes.

2007-11-17T07:57:00.001-08:00

Current members
There is one associate member school (wrestling only):

Associate members

Future members

Conference champions

Football

Men's basketball
The Commissioner's and Germann Cups are awarded each year to the top men's and women's program in the conference. The Commissioner's Cup was inaugurated in 1970. The Germann Cup, named for former Southern Conference Commissioner Ken Germann, was first awarded in 1987.
Commissioner's and Germann Cups

Commissioner's Cup

Conference facilities

2007-11-16T10:03:00.001-08:00

Henry Robinson Luce (pronounced like "loose") (April 3, 1898 – February 28, 1967) was an influential American publisher.

In popular culture
Ralph G. Martin's book Henry & Clare: An Intimate Portrait of the Luces claims that Henry had extended relationships with Jean Dalrymple (a Broadway producer and theatrical agent) and Mary Bancroft (who, among other accomplishments, had been a wartime spymaster for the OSS). According to Martin, Clare also had many lovers. Henry's liaison that most seriously threatened his marriage to Clare involved Lady Jeanne Campbell, granddaughter of the British press tycoon Lord Beaverbrook. TIME in 1956 found a minor job in its picture department for Lady Jeanne. Luce became so openly smitten with this cheerful redhead, 31 years his junior, that rumors of the affair appeared in gossip columns. Lady Jeanne eventually married novelist Norman Mailer.
Martin's claims are controversial. An article in the August 26, 1991 issue of TIME states that "Henry & Clare is rife with errors, undocumented innuendo, non sequiturs and contradictions. Martin shows little understanding of how the Luce organization worked; the portraits of his principals are caricature-crude, especially in the case of Clare."

2007-11-15T10:08:00.001-08:00

The Queen's Service Order was established by Queen Elizabeth II on 13 March 1975. It is a New Zealand Order awarded for "for valuable voluntary service to the community or meritorious and faithful services to the Crown or similar services within the public sector, whether in elected or appointed office", excepting military service. This Order was created after a review of New Zealand's honours system in 1974.
Awarded in Public and Community Service divisions, receipients of this award are entitled to use the post-nominal letters "QSO". Members of the Order are styled "Companion". "Extra" and "Additional" Companions can be added to the membership in the case of members of the Royal Family and former Governors-General, respectively.
The insignia of the order is a stylised manuka flower with five petals, which contains the effigy of the reigning monarch surrounded by a red circle indicating the division of the Order for which it was awarded (i.e. For Public Service or For Community Service). This circle is royally crowned. The ribbon has a traditional Maori motif of black, white and red diagonal 'steps' in the centre with red stripes along each edge of the ribbon. The insignia is worn on the left lapel of the coat or from a ribbon tied in a bow at the left shoulder.
There is also a related Queen's Service Medal, which is a silver circular medal bearing the effigy of the reigning monarch on the obverse, and the Coat of Arms of New Zealand on the reverse. The ribbon or bow pattern is the same as the Queen's Service Order. The Medal is also awarded in the same two divisions as the Order.

See also

British and Commonwealth orders and decorations
New Zealand Honours System

2007-11-14T10:21:00.001-08:00

The geography of New Zealand encompasses two main islands (called the North and South Islands in English, Te-Ika-a-Maui and Te Wai Pounamu in Māori) and a number of smaller islands, located near the centre of the water hemisphere. New Zealand varies in climate from cold and wet to dry and to subtropical in some areas. The dramatic and varied landscape of New Zealand has made it a popular location for the production of television programmes and films, including the Lord of the Rings trilogy, and the Last Samurai.
Neighbouring countries include Australia to the northwest and Tonga and Fiji to the north.

Physical geography
New Zealand straddles the boundary between two tectonic plates. The subduction of the Pacific plate under the Indo-Australian Plate results in volcanism, especially in the North Island's Taupo Volcanic Zone. The associated geothermal energy is used in numerous hydrothermal power plants.
There are karst sedimentary rock formations in some areas, among which the Waitomo Caves and the Pancake Rocks are recognised tourist attractions.

Political geography
The climate in New Zealand is mostly cool temperate to warm temperate. Mean temperatures range from 8°C (46°F) in the South Island to 16°C (61°F) in the North Island.

Its latitude zone location where the prevailing winds flow westerly.
Its oceanic environment.
The mountains, especially the Southern Alps. Climate
Natural resources include: coal, gold, hydropower, iron ore, limestone, natural gas, sand, and timber.
Land use:
Irrigated land: 2,850 km² (2003)

arable land: 5.54%
permanent crops: 6.92%
other: 87.54% (2005) Land use
Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe. Volcanic activity. Fire bans exist in some areas.

Environment

New Zealand
Extreme points of New Zealand
National parks of New Zealand
Marine reserves of New Zealand
Islands of New Zealand
List of trees native to New Zealand
Water hemisphere
List of lakes in New Zealand
Geology of New Zealand
Geological history of New Zealand

2007-11-13T07:05:00.001-08:00

"The Head and the Hair" is the eleventh episode of the situation comedy series 30 Rock, which aired January 18, 2007.

Wikipedia reference
Gold Case is a fictional game show, hosted by John McEnroe. It was created by Kenneth "Kenneth the Page" Parcell, and is designed to be a cross between "Deal or No Deal" and "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire".
The setting is simple: Ten models hold identical briefcases, one of them containing $1 Million in gold. The contestant must choose the case they think holds the gold. The show was cancelled (even before it aired) after several contestants tried their luck, when it was discovered that it was incredibly easy. The contestant could always immediately determine which case held the gold, due to the model's visible difficulty in holding the heavy briefcase.
Due to every contestant immediately picking the correct briefcase, it is not clear what would happen if the contestant chose incorrectly. If the gold or non-gold content of the briefcase were always revealed immediately upon the contestant making his or her selection, and the game ended at that point, each round of the game would last only a few minutes, like those that were shown.

"Gold Case"

Liz reminded everyone in the staff office that "today" was January 17, 2007. Since January 17 fell on a Wednesday in 2007, this episode would have aired on that date instead of January 18, since 30 Rock itself used to air on Wednesdays.
At the end of the show, Kenneth's Gold Case show is a failure, because contestants can easily spot which case contains a million dollars worth of gold since the model has visible difficulty holding the case. In real life, a million dollars is equivalent to a little over one hundred and ten pounds of gold.
In this episode, Tracy Jordan says he was living with his mother in her house in 1979. This contradicts the pilot, in which he said he grew up in an apartment, where he was living in foster care.
Kenneth is cleaning graffiti off a wall in Brian Williams's office that says "KAT... COUR... SU..." It presumably says, "Katie Couric Sucks."
Peter Hermann is the third Law & Order: SVU actor to appear on the show.
Explicit or indirect NBC/MSNBC show references: Heroes, Hardball, NBC Nightly News
The episode marks another Star Wars reference, specifically the Death Star's tractor beam and the Millennium Falcon.
The "show about midgets" Liz mentions is a possible reference to the TLC reality series Little People, Big World.
The "Moonvest" character introduced in this episode inspired the name of 30 Rock fan site MOONVEST.COM.
After Liz and "The Hair" find out that they're 3rd cousins, the theme music temporarily changes to include a banjo (possibly as an oblique reference to the movie Deliverance). Guest starring

Teddy Coluca (Stage Manager)
Nikki Ghisel (MSNBC Receptionist)
Michal Antonov (10 Year Old Liz)
Tyler Johnson (Model/Waiter)
Ali Reza (Executive)
Craig Castaldo (Moonvest)
Rock Kohli (Store Clerk)
Brendan Walsh (Shut It Down)
J.T. Arbogast (Contestant #1)
Carrie Yaeger (Contestant #2)
Audrey K. Amey (Contestant #3)
Jon Norman Schneider (Contestant #4)

2007-11-12T08:10:00.001-08:00

Effects Watches and warnings Storm surge - Notable storms Retired hurricanes (Atlantic - Pacific) A tropical cyclone is a meteorological term for a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and thunderstorms that produces strong wind and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on the heat released when moist air rises and the water vapor it contains condenses. They are fueled by a different heat mechanism than other cyclonic windstorms such as nor'easters, European windstorms, and polar lows, leading to their classification as "warm core" storm systems.
The adjective "tropical" refers to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in Maritime Tropical air masses. The noun "cyclone" refers to such storms' cyclonic nature, with counterclockwise rotation in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere. Depending on their location and strength, tropical cyclones are referred to by various other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm, and tropical depression.
While tropical cyclones can produce extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high waves and damaging storm surge. They develop over large bodies of warm water, and lose their strength if they move over land. This is the reason coastal regions can receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are relatively safe from receiving strong winds. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant flooding inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 25 mi (40 km) from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it towards temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere, and to maintain a relatively stable and warm temperature worldwide.
Many tropical cyclones develop when the atmospheric conditions around a weak disturbance in the atmosphere are favorable. Others form when other types of cyclones acquire tropical characteristics. Tropical systems are then moved by steering winds in the troposphere; if the conditions remain favorable, the tropical disturbance intensifies, and can even develop an eye. On the other end of the spectrum, if the conditions around the system deteriorate or the tropical cyclone makes landfall, the system weakens and eventually dissipates.

Physical structure
Rainbands are bands of showers and thunderstorms that spiral cyclonically toward the storm center. High wind gusts and heavy downpours often occur in individual rainbands, with relatively calm weather between bands. Tornadoes often form in the rainbands of landfalling tropical cyclones.

Banding
A strong tropical cyclone will harbor an area of sinking air at the center of circulation. If this area is strong enough, it can develop into an eye. Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds, though the sea may be extremely violent.

Eye and inner core
The size of a tropical cyclone is determined by measuring the distance from their center of circulation to their outermost closed isobar. If the radius is less than two degrees of latitude (120 nm, 222 km), then the cyclone is "very small" or a "midget." Radii of 2–3 degrees (120–180 nm, 222–333 km) are considered "small." Radii between 3 and 6 latitude degrees (180–360 nm, 333–666 km) are considered "average sized." Tropical cyclones are considered "large" when the closed isobar radius is 6–8 degrees of latitude (360–480 nm, 666–888 km), while "very large" tropical cyclones have a radius of greater than 8 degrees (480 nm, 888 km). Other methods of determining a tropical cyclone's size include measuring the radius of gale force winds and measuring the radius of the central dense overcast.

Size
A tropical cyclone's primary energy source is the release of the heat of condensation from water vapor condensing at high altitudes, with solar heating being the initial source for evaporation. Therefore, a tropical cyclone can be visualized as a giant vertical heat engine supported by mechanics driven by physical forces such as the rotation and gravity of the Earth.

Mechanics

Main articles: Tropical cyclone basins, Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre, and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre Major basins and related warning centers

Main article: Tropical cyclogenesis Formation
Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active.

Times
The formation of tropical cyclones is the topic of extensive ongoing research and is still not fully understood. While six factors appear to be generally necessary, tropical cyclones may occasionally form without meeting all of the following conditions. In most situations, water temperatures of at least 26.5 °C (80 °F) are needed

Locations

Movement and track
Although tropical cyclones are large systems generating enormous energy, their movements over the Earth's surface are controlled by large-scale winds—the streams in the Earth's atmosphere. The path of motion is referred to as a tropical cyclone's track and has been analogized by Dr. Neil Frank, former director of the National Hurricane Center, to "leaves carried along by a stream."

Steering winds
The Earth's rotation imparts an acceleration known as the Coriolis Effect, Coriolis Acceleration, or colloquially, Coriolis Force. This acceleration causes cyclonic systems to turn towards the poles in the absence of strong steering currents.

Coriolis effect
When a tropical cyclone crosses the subtropical ridge axis, its general track around the high-pressure area is deflected significantly by winds moving towards the general low-pressure area to its north. When the cyclone track becomes strongly poleward with an easterly component, the cyclone has begun recurvature.

Interaction with the mid-latitude westerlies
See also: List of notable tropical cyclones and Unusual areas of tropical cyclone formation
Officially, landfall is when a storm's center (the center of its circulation, not its edge) crosses the coastline.

Landfall

Dissipation
A tropical cyclone can cease to have tropical characteristics through several different ways. One such way is if it moves over land, thus depriving it of the warm water it needs to power itself, quickly losing strength. Most strong storms lose their strength very rapidly after landfall and become disorganized areas of low pressure within a day or two, or evolve into extratropical cyclones. While there is a chance a tropical cyclone could regenerate it managed to get back over open warm water, if it remains over mountains for even a short time, it can rapidly lose its structure. Many storm fatalities occur in mountainous terrain, as the dying storm unleashes torrential rainfall, leading to deadly floods and mudslides, similar to those that happened with Hurricane Mitch in 1998. Additionally, dissipation can occur if a storm remains in the same area of ocean for too long, mixing the upper 30 meters (100 feet) of water. This occurs because the cyclone draws up colder water from deeper in the sea through upwelling, and causes the water surface to become too cool to support the storm. Without warm surface water, the storm cannot survive.

Factors
In the 1960s and 1970s, the United States government attempted to weaken hurricanes through Project Stormfury by seeding selected storms with silver iodide. It was thought that the seeding would cause supercooled water in the outer rainbands to freeze, causing the inner eyewall to collapse and thus reducing the winds. The winds of Hurricane Debbie—a hurricane seeded in Project Stormfury—dropped as much as 30%, but Debby regained its strength after each of two seeding forays. In an earlier episode in 1947, disaster struck when a hurricane east of Jacksonville, Florida promptly changed its course after being seeded, and smashed into Savannah, Georgia.

Artificial dissipation

Main article: Effects of tropical cyclones Effects

Observation and forecasting

Main article: Tropical cyclone observation Observation
See also: Tropical cyclone forecasting, Tropical cyclone prediction model, and Tropical cyclone rainfall forecasting
Because of the forces that affect tropical cyclone tracks, accurate track predictions depend on determining the position and strength of high- and low-pressure areas, and predicting how those areas will change during the life of a tropical system. The deep layer mean flow is considered to be the best tool in determining track direction and speed. If storms are significantly sheared, use of wind speed measurements at a lower altitude, such as at the 700 hpa pressure surface (3000 meters or 10000 feet above sea level) will produce better predictions. Tropical forecasters also consider smoothing out short-term wobbles of the storm center in order They attribute the lack of improvement in intensity forecasting to the complexity of tropical systems and an incomplete understanding of factors that affect their development.

Forecasting

Classifications, terminology, and naming

Main article: Tropical cyclone scales Intensity classifications
The word typhoon, used today in the Northwest Pacific, has two possible and equally plausible origins. The first is from the Chinese 大風 (Cantonese: daaih fūng; Mandarin: dà fēng) which means "great wind." (Huracan is also the source of the word Orcan, another word for the European windstorm. These events should not be confused.)

Origin of storm terms

Main articles: Tropical cyclone naming and Lists of tropical cyclone names Naming

Main articles: List of notable tropical cyclones, List of notable Atlantic hurricanes, and List of notable Pacific hurricanes Notable tropical cyclones
See also: Atlantic hurricane reanalysis
While the number of storms in the Atlantic has increased since 1995, there is no obvious global trend; the annual number of tropical cyclones worldwide remains about 87 ± 10. However, the ability of climatologists to make long-term data analysis in certain basins is limited by the lack of reliable historical data in some basins, primarily in the Southern Hemisphere. The official record, therefore, could miss storms in which no ship experienced gale-force winds, recognized it as a tropical storm (as opposed to a high-latitude extra-tropical cyclone, a tropical wave, or a brief squall), returned to port, and reported the experience.

Long term activity trends
The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory performed a simulation to determine if there is a statistical trend in the frequency or strength of cyclones over time. The simulation concluded "the strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the earth's climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere."

Global warming
See also: Cyclone, Extratropical cyclone, and Subtropical cyclone
In addition to tropical cyclones, there are two other classes of cyclones within the spectrum of cyclone types. These kinds of cyclones, known as extratropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones, can be stages a tropical cyclone passes through during its formation or dissipation.

Related cyclone types

Main article: Tropical cyclones in popular culture See also

2007-11-11T07:37:00.001-08:00

Zayd al-Khayr is a companion of Muhammad. Hailing from the tribe of Tayy in northern Nejd. He was originally known as Zayd al-Khayl ("Zayd of the Steeds", a reference to his chivalry), but after becoming Muslim, Muhammad renamed him Zayd al-Khayr ("Zayd of Goodness" or "of Bounty").
After learning information about Muhammad, Zayd made enquiries and decided to travel to Medina and meet him, taking a delegation of his people including Zurr ibn Sudoos, Malik ibn Jubayr, Aamir ibn Duwayn and others. When they reached Medina, they entered Masjid al-Nabawi while he was addressing his congregation. Zayd and his delegation were astonished by the attention of the Muslims and the effect of his words on them. Muhammad said:
"I am better for you than al-Uzza (one of the main idols of the Arabs in the pre-Islamic era) and everything else that you worship. I am better for you than the black camel which you worship besides God."
Some of Zayd's delegation responded positively and accepted Islam while others did not. When Muhammad had finished speaking, Zayd stood up and said:
"O Muhammad, I testify that there is no god but God and that you are the messenger of God."
Muhammad approached him and asked who he was, to which Zayd replied, "I am Zayd al-Khayl the son of Muhalhil."
"From now on you are Zayd al-Khayr ("Zayd the good") instead, not Zayd al-Khayl," said Muhammad.
During this visit in Medina all those who stayed with Zayd became Muslims.
However, there was an epidemic of fever in Medina and Zayd al-Khayr succumbed to it. He attempted to return home despite his illness, hoping to get back to his people so they might become Muslims at his hands. He struggled to overcome the fever but he died before reaching Najd.

2007-11-10T07:11:00.001-08:00

Percy Sinclair Pilcher (January 1866 — 2 October 1899) was a British inventor and pioneer aviator who, in one of the big "what if" events of history, could well have become the first person to achieve controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight well before the Wright brothers had he not been tragically killed in a glider accident.

Early life
In 1891 Pilcher began work as assistant lecturer at Glasgow University and took a growing interest in aviation. He built a hang glider called The Bat which he flew for the first time in 1895. Later that year Pilcher met Otto Lilienthal, who was the leading expert in gliding in Germany. These discussions led to Pilcher building two more gliders, The Beetle and The Gull. Based on the work of his mentor Otto Lilienthal, in 1897 Pilcher built a glider called The Hawk with which he broke the world distance record when he flew 250 m (820 feet) at the grounds of Stanford Hall in Leicestershire, England.
Pilcher set his sights upon powered flight: he developed a triplane that was to be powered by a 4 hp (3 kW) engine; however, construction of the triplane put him heavily into debt, and Pilcher needed sponsorship to complete his work.

Career
On 30 September 1899, having completed his triplane, he had intended to demonstrate it to a group of onlookers and potential sponsors in a field near Stanford Hall. However, the engine broke down and, so as not to disappoint his guests, he decided to fly the Hawk instead. Whilst flying, the tail snapped and Pilcher plunged 10 metres (30 feet) to the ground: he died two days later from his injuries with his triplane having never been publicly flown.
He is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London.[1]

Renewal of interest

Aviation history#Picking up the pace

2007-11-09T08:11:00.001-08:00

Deem Reginald Bristow (April 11, 1947 – January 15, 2005) was an actor and voice actor. His most well-known role was that of Doctor Robotnik aka Doctor Eggman in the Sonic the Hedgehog video game series.
Bristow suffered from a heart attack at a singles' dance and died shortly thereafter at Sharp Hospital in San Diego, California at the age of 57. Coincidentally, Long John Baldry, Robotnik's first voice actor (Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog) died the same year.

Games

Paranoia Agent as Masami Hirukawa
Rumiko Takahashi Anthology as Flower Shop Owner
Spirit of Wonder as Dr. Breckenridge
Texhnolyze as Chief of Gabe

2007-11-08T07:07:00.001-08:00

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Norway
The Constitution of Norway was first adopted on May 16, 1814 by the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll (a small town north of the country's capital, then called Christiania), then signed and dated May 17. May 17 is now the National Day of Norway.

Constitution
King

Harald V
Prime Minister
- Jens Stoltenberg
  Government
  - Red-Green Coalition
    Storting
    Political parties
    Politicians (category)
    Elections
    Counties (Fylker)
    Municipalities (Kommuner)
    Foreign relations
    Norway and the EU Development of the constitution
    The events and the constitution of 1814 have a central place in Norwegian identity. For this reason, and to keep the text as consistent as possible, changes are written in a language close to the original. In 1814 Danish was still the universal written language. The current two written varieties of Norwegian, Bokmål and Nynorsk, were not developed until the late 19th century. In 1903 the constitution underwent a very slight linguistic revision, changing the spelling of some words where orthography had changed since 1814, but still retaining a conservative 19th century Danish.
    All recent amendments have attempted to imitate the language of the 1903 version, leading to peculiar constructions. The word "environment" is written in the ancient spelling milieu, differing from modern Norwegian and Danish miljø; the modern context of that word was, however, non-existing in the 19th century. The "Sami ethnical group" is "den samiske Folkegruppe", even if the word Sami (samisk) was not common until the 1970s. In 1814 or 1903, the word Lappish (lappisk) would have been used, but this is today considered to be a derogatory term.
    Since amendments are elaborated by politicians not competent in 19th century Danish, several modern Norwegian spellings have sneaked into the constitution. Different approaches to revise the language throughout the document have been suggested:
    A constitutional amendment of February 2, 2006 was aimed at reverting 16 minor spelling errors to the proper 1903 forms.
    It could be argued that Norway is possibly the only country to have a constitution written in a foreign language. It is certainly the only state to compose new law material in a dead language form, apart from the Vatican which uses Latin. Even the official name of the Kingdom of Norway (Norwegian: Kongeriket Norge) would in fact be the Danish form Kongeriget Norge if taken literally from the constitution.
    
    Bring the language up to today's usage and orthography.
    Use the 1903 standard, but correct various passages where newer amendments do not really conform to that standard.
    Revert the language to the standard of 1814; an objection to this is that most modern Norwegians would find it even more difficult to read.
    Update the language to one of the spelling reforms, either 1917, 1938, or 1959. This would still be fairly conservative language, but closer to today's speech. Current trends
    
    Norwegian Constitution Day
    History of Norway
    Riksforsamlingen

2007-11-07T07:29:00.001-08:00

The London Assembly is an elected body, part of the Greater London Authority, that scrutinises the activities of the Mayor of London and has the power, with a two-thirds majority, to amend the Mayor's annual budget. The Assembly was established in 2000 and is headquartered at City Hall on the south side of the River Thames close to Tower Bridge.
The Assembly is also able to investigate other issues of importance to Londoners, publish its findings and recommendations, and make proposals to the Mayor.
Although the Assembly's powers are fairly limited, the body is increasingly seen as a stepping stone to Parliament. In the time since its creation in 2000, six Assembly members have been elected to the House of Commons: David Lammy, Meg Hillier and Diana Johnson for Labour; Andrew Pelling and Bob Neill for the Conservatives; and Lynne Featherstone for the Liberal Democrats. In addition, Angie Bray and Bob Blackman have been selected as the Conservative parliamentary candidates for the marginal seats of Ealing Acton and Harrow East at the next general election.

Makeup
¹Both One London members were elected on the United Kingdom Independence Party list but defected in February 2005 to the newly-formed Veritas party; from September 2005 they formed their own party.

London-wide Members

London Assembly election, 2000
London Assembly election, 2004
Toby Harris

2007-11-06T08:10:00.001-08:00

This article is on the diocese of the Scottish Episcopal Church; for the Catholic diocese, see Diocese of Argyll and the Isles (Catholic).
The Diocese of Argyll and the Isles is in the west of Scotland, and is one of the seven dioceses of the Scottish Episcopal Church. It is perhaps the largest of the dioceses, but has the smallest number of church members. It covers Argyll and Bute, the Isle of Arran, Lochaber, the Isle of Skye and the rest of the Hebrides. As a united diocese, Argyll and the Isles has two cathedrals: St John's in Oban and the Cathedral of the Isles in Millport, Isle of Cumbrae.
The Diocese of the Isles, by itself, was founded by Patrick in 900, and the Diocese of Argyll was founded by Bishop Harald in 1193. During the Scottish Reformation, most of the heritage and jurisdiction of the church was given to the Church of Scotland. However, the small Scottish Episcopal Church has maintained the line of bishops of both dioceses through to the present day. In the seventeenth century, the Diocese of the Isles was united with the dioceses of Caithness and Orkney, and, in 1819, was separated from them to unite with the Diocese of Argyll. In 1878, the Roman Catholic Church created a Diocese of Argyll and the Isles. The current Bishop of Argyll and the Isles is the Right Reverend Martin Shaw.
The Diocese of Argyll and the Isles is twinned with the Anglican Diocese of Zanzibar (Anglican Church of Tanzania) and the Episcopal Diocese of Delaware (Episcopal Church of the United States of America).
Bath & Wells · Birmingham · Bristol · Canterbury · Chelmsford · Chichester · Coventry · Derby · Ely · Exeter · Gibraltar in Europe · Gloucester · Guildford · Hereford · Leicester · Lichfield · Lincoln · London · Norwich · Oxford · Peterborough · Portsmouth · Rochester · Saint Albans · Saint Edmundsbury & Ipswich · Salisbury · Southwark · Truro · Winchester · Worcester
Blackburn · Bradford · Carlisle · Chester · Durham · Liverpool · Manchester · Newcastle · Ripon & Leeds · Sheffield · Sodor & Man · Southwell & Nottingham · Wakefield · York
Bangor · Llandaff · Monmouth · Saint Asaph · Saint David's · Swansea & Brecon
Aberdeen & Orkney · Argyll & the Isles · Brechin · Edinburgh · Glasgow & Galloway · Moray, Ross & Caithness · Saint Andrews, Dunkeld & Dunblane
Armagh · Clogher · Connor · Derry and Raphoe · Down & Dromore · Kilmore, Elphin & Ardagh · Tuam, Killala & Achonry
Cashel & Ossory · Cork, Cloyne & Ross · Dublin · Limerick & Killaloe · Meath & Kildare

2007-11-05T07:33:00.001-08:00

The Downtown Halifax Link system is similar to Toronto's PATH or Montreal's RÉSO system, but on a much smaller scale. It consists of a network of climate-controlled pedways (pedestrian tunnels and skywalks) connecting various office buildings, hotels, parkades, and entertainment venues around downtown Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. These walkways are all open to the public, and are convenient during inclement weather and the winter months.

2007-11-04T07:59:00.001-08:00

Jack MacDonald Coleman (born February 21, 1958 and for portraying Mr. Bennet in science fiction drama series Heroes.

Career
He is a sixth generation grandchild of American inventor Benjamin Franklin. He attended Duke University, where he decided to pursue acting as a career. After graduating from Duke in 1980, he attended the National Theater Institute. He married actress Beth Toussaint in 1996. Together they have one daughter, Tess.

2007-11-03T10:05:00.001-07:00

Limnology (from Greek: Λίμνη limne, "lake"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the study of inland waters (both fresh and saline), including their biological, physical, chemical, geological and hydrological aspects. This includes the study of (natural and man-made) lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands and groundwaters.
François-Alphonse Forel (1841-1912) established the field with his studies of Lake Geneva. Limnology traditionally is closely related to hydrobiology, which is concerned with the application of the principles and methods of physics, chemistry, geology, and geography to ecological problems.

Organizations

Hydrobiologia
River Research and Applications
Aquatic Conservation
Advances in Limnology
Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology
Journal of Limnology (- - Journal webpage - R.Bertoni)
Limnologica
Limnology and Oceanography
Journal of Coastal Research
Freshwater Biology

2007-11-02T10:31:00.001-07:00

The London Oratory School is a Catholic voluntary aided comprehensive secondary school in Fulham, London educating boys in the age range of 7-16 and boys and girls in the age range 16-18 (the sixth form). There are 1338 pupils including 354 in the sixth form. The Headmaster is David McFadden BSc MA.

History
The school's most recent Ofsted report classed it as outstanding, the highest possible grade[1]. The school offers an unrivalled range of extra-curricular activities. On any single day there may be more than 20 activities on offer, before and after school and during lunch time. Many of these activities are musical where the school has a real strength. Other activities include the Combined Cadet Force, societies and modern languages enrichment. Such activities allow pupils to experience challenge and to work productively together. In addition there is a wide range of sports fixtures, school journeys, visits and cultural activities. Many sporting activities take place at the Barn Elms sport centre in South West London, however extra facilities have been recently added to the school site, including cricket nets and tennis facilities. The Arts Centre provides a venue for exhibitions and performances of a high quality. In the sixth form there is a popular debating society and there is good provision for girls to take part in activities including a successful girls' rugby team. Participation rates in extra-curricular activities are high. In keeping with the ethos of a Catholic school opportunities are provided for pupils to take part in retreats such as those to Aylesford Priory, Fawley Court and Lourdes.
The school uniform is a black blazer with an embroidered orange and red shield; sixth form boys wear a black jacket with the complete coat of arms while girls wear a striped blazer. The school admits pupils from a wide range of backgrounds and has an extensive catchment area, with pupils travelling from as far away as Uxbridge in the west, Tower Hamlets in the east, Muswell Hill in the north and Kingston upon Thames in the south.
A very high proportion of pupils go on to higher education, with many gaining places at the country's most prestigious universities. Recent years have seen impressive Oxbridge success. In keeping with the school's policy of catering for a broad range of academic ability, assistance is given in applications to all institutions of higher education. The objective throughout the school is to aim to fulfill each pupil's potential, which of course is different for every individual. The school makes strenuous efforts to ensure students with special educational needs have proper care and support, a fact recognised in the most recent Ofsted Inspection Report.
The senior school is divided into six houses, Campion, Fisher, Howard, More, Owen and Southwell, each with a housemaster, who, together with the form tutors, are responsible for the academic and social well-being of those in the house. Pupils in each house have lunch together in the Houseroom every day and all houses compete in the various sports challenges, such as the House Rugby Competition. Houses are thought to promote unity and friendly competition in the school, across all years.
The Modern Languages department at the London Oratory School is considered to be particularly strong. In 2005, the Department were given the award for best A-Level results in Modern Languages of all state schools in England. Advanced Extension Awards are offered to those pupils with a particular gift in their subject.
Since 11th November 2006, on Saturdays, Polish students attend the Henryk Sienkiewicz Polish School that takes place in the London Oratory School. Students of the school range from the age of 5 to 17, where students also study to take GCSE and A-Level examinations, usually a year earlier than students do for other subjects. The Headmaster of the Henryk Sienkiewicz Polish School is Wojciech Poza, a chemistry teacher at the school.

Student Life
The Music Department is highly renowned, and the Junior House, formed in 1996, gives a rigorous education to boys from the age of seven to eleven in all subjects in the context of a thorough musical education. The department has five full time music teachers, and a large number of visiting instrumental and singing teachers who give singing and instrumental lessons throughout the week. For pupils with an aptitude for music and a desire to study seriously, the school affords extensive opportunities for tuition, study and performing in public. There are five choirs: The Schola, the Junior House Choir, the School Choir, the Chamber Choir and the Girls' Choir. The director of music is Lee Ward, who is also director of music at Hampstead Parish Church. Ward is Director of The Schola, Chamber Choir and School Choir but as of September 18, 2007 he has stepped down and made his fellow colleagues David Terry and Clare Dawson in charge of the Chamber and School Choir. The School Choir and the Chamber Choir are open to all pupils with choral ability, the Chamber Choir specialising in the more demanding music, particularly the traditional liturgical music of the Catholic Church. The Girls' Choir is drawn from the girls in the sixth form. The Choral Society is open to parents, staff and friends and performs a concert each term in venues in London. Recently performed works include; Verdi's Requiem, Orff's Carmina Burana, Elgar's Dream of Gerontius, Mozart's Mass in C minor, Bach's Magnificat, Duke Ellington's Sacred Concert, Bach's Mass in B Minor, Pärt's Miserere, Monteverdi's 'Vespers' Allegri's Miserere and Lauridsen's Lux Aeterna.
In recent years pupils have taken part in the school's productions of Purcell's Dido and Aeneas and King Arthur, Britten's Golden Vanity, Noye's Fludde and The Children's Crusade, Menotti's Amahl and the Night Visitors, Richard Rodney Bennett's opera All the King's Men, The Ballad of Solomon Pavey, an Elizabethan ballad opera about the children of the Chapel Royal, Gilbert and Sullivan's Iolanthe, The Mikado, Patience, Trial by Jury and The Pirates of Penzance, The Beggars Opera by John Gay, Mozart's The Magic Flute, The Marriage of Figaro and Cosi Fan Tutte, Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld, Sondheim's A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, Bizet's Carmen and Rodgers and Hammerstein's The Sound of Music.
The choirs regularly give concerts of sacred and secular music at the school and also out of school and have performed at Oxford and Cambridge colleges, the Royal Albert Hall, the Royal National Theatre and the Purcell Room on the South Bank and in addition, some pupils sing at the English National Opera and the Royal Opera House. The choirs have also toured extensively abroad and many pupils have in the past visited; Paris, Germany, America, Rome, Krakov, Berlin, Bareclona, New York and Lisbon. The school has provided choirs for film scores such as The Lord of the Rings. The chamber choir, schola and girls' choir from the school sang with professional soloists and the Colla Voce singers (an ensemble largely composed of former pupils who have gone on to music scholarships) at a concert in the London Oratory Church, for the retirement as headmaster of John McIntosh OBE, on Saturday 9th December 2006. This was attended by HRH The Princess Michael of Kent and the Prime Minister, Rt Hon. Tony Blair MP.
Over 500 pupils attend more than 700 weekly individual music lessons given by some of London's leading professional musicians in a wide variety of instruments. Where possible instruments are loaned to pupils in the initial stages. Pupils are entered for the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music examinations. The school's Symphony Orchestra and various ensembles provide pupils with an excellent introduction to group music making. All orchestral instrumentalists are encouraged to join one or more of the groups such as the Symphony Orchestra, Chamber Orchestra, Junior Strings, Concert Band and several chamber groups and a jazz group: The Seagrave Stompers. Choral and orchestral concerts are held each term in the theatre and pupils and teachers give lunch time recitals in the foyer of The John McIntosh Arts Centre and Junior House choir room. The school possesses two types of electronic organ: a three manual Allen organ in the Chapel and a two manual organ in The John McIntosh Arts Centre. There is also a fine two manual Goble harpsichord for pupils learning keyboard instruments and for use in school concerts. The school has recently acquired a concert harp and now has eight pupils learning this instrument.

Music at the School
The London Oratory School Schola was established in 1996 as a means of providing Catholic boys from the age of seven with a rigorous choral education within the maintained system, something hitherto only available in the independent system. The school's close association with the London Oratory places it in a strong, if not unique, position to provide this form of specialist education and to contribute to the development of traditional liturgical music.
The partnership between the London Oratory and the school provides ideal opportunities for the school to train boys within the context of a living tradition of catholic liturgy.
The Oratory is part of a dynamic liturgical and musical tradition which goes back to the sixteenth century when the first Oratory was established in Rome at the time of the Counter-Reformation. Both Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Tomás Luis de Victoria were closely associated with the Oratory and Philip Neri, its founder, and Victoria became an Oratorian.
In particular, the houses of the Oratory in Europe have been closely associated with the development of sacred polyphony and Gregorian Chant. The Oratory in London has a reputation for maintaining this tradition and for providing some of the finest liturgy and liturgical music in Europe today. The school has a strong musical tradition and for many years has been closely associated with liturgy and music of the Oratory.
The Schola sings at the Saturday evening Mass at the Oratory every week in term time and at other Masses and services during and outside term, and in the School Chapel during the week. In addition to the liturgical commitment, concert work and touring are a regular feature of the choristers' lives. The choir also features on film soundtracks, including the whole of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (film).
Choristers normally join the school at the age of seven and are selected by audition, examination and an exhaustive interview, although places may sometimes be available to boys who join the school later, including during the sixth form. Choristers rehearse at 8 o'clock every morning, for an hour immediately before services, and frequently during the lunch break and after school. Boys are given individual voice training. When their voices change, and the time comes for choristers to step down as trebles and altos, they devote more time to their instrumental music; their interest in singing is kept alive until their voices have developed sufficiently to enable them, where appropriate, to return to The Schola. The Schola is supported by lay clerks, some of whom are members of the Oratory Choir. Choristers are fully involved in other aspects of the musical life of the school.
The Oratory School Schola Foundation has been set up to raise funds to supprt the development of the Schola and its overseas tours, as unlike Cathedral choirs it has no endowments or external source of income.

The Schola
Drama plays an important part in the life of the school. There are several productions each year: a major drama and opera production in conjunction with the Music Department, smaller scale productions by the Drama Club and other groups of pupils and periodic performances by visiting companies. In recent years the school has presented Macbeth, Twelfth Night, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Taming of the Shrew, The Comedy of Errors and Much Ado about Nothing (all by Shakespeare). Other productions have been Molière's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme and The Hypochondriac, Gogol's The Government Inspector, Shaw's The Devil's Disciple and Pygmalion, Beckett's Endgame, Edward Bond's The Sea and Stone as well as Toad of Toad Hall, The Elephant Man, numerous one-act plays including four by Chekhov, Arthur Miller's The Crucible and A View from the Bridge, Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest, Peter Shaffer's Black Comedy, Noel Coward's Blithe Spirit, Alan Bennett's Habeas Corpus, Keith Dewhurst's Don Quixote and Rostand's Cyrano de Bergerac, Sheridan's School for Scandal, Webster's The Duchess of Malfi, Brian Friel's Translations, Ben Jonson's Volpone, Timberlake Wertenbaker's Our Country's Good, Alice in Wonderland, Shakespeare's The Tempest, South Pacific and most recently Gargling with Jelly"
Great importance is attached to all theatrical skills so that pupils become closely involved in the design and construction of scenery, the making of costumes, the use of the school's extensive and up-to-date lighting system, in stage management and the techniques of make-up. Several members of staff direct, often assisted by pupils from the sixth form.

Drama
The School's CCF is sponsored by The Rifles and The Royal Air Force. Membership is voluntary and open to pupils aged thirteen and over. Meetings are held every week on a Friday after school, this includes a parade, lessons and a final parade. Activities normally held on weekend camps include abseiling, canoing, shooting, climbing, lightweight camping, flying, gliding, swimming and sport, in addition to subjects taught in the Combined Cadet Force training syllabus. Royal Air Force cadets attend voluntary flying lessons at least twice a month. The two sections of the school's CCF regularly achieve great success in the national competitions, and in 2007 the RAF section achieved 5th place in the national finals of the Ground Training Competition held at RAF Uxbridge, while the Rifles section finished 4th in the Swift and Bold competition at Stowe School. The Rifles section have won that competition in the two previous years (2006 and 2005) while the RAF section collected 2nd place in the Ground Training Competition in 2005 and 3rd in 2004.

School Environment Committee

Wayne Andrews
Hayley Atwell
Euan Blair
Kathryn Blair
Nicholas Blair
Simon Callow
Johnnie Jackson
Diarmuid O'Neill
Bridget Prentice MP (Teacher) Headmasters

Catholic Church in England and Wales
Catholic Church

2007-11-01T08:34:00.001-07:00

The Trecento was a period of vigorous activity in Italy in the arts, including painting, architecture, literature, and music. The music of the Trecento paralleled the achievements in the other arts in many ways, for example in pioneering new forms and new forms of expression, especially in secular song in the vernacular language, Italian. In these regards the music of the Trecento may seem more to be a Renaissance phenomenon; however, the predominant musical language was more closely related to that of the late Middle Ages, and musicologists generally classify the Trecento as the end of the medieval era.

Background
Some of the poetry of Dante Alighieri (1265–1320) was set to music at the time it was written, but none of the music has survived. One of the musicians to set Dante's poetry was his friend Casella (died 1299 or 1300), memorialized in Canto II of Purgatorio. Poems of Dante set by others included canzoni and ballatas; if they were similar to the other earliest ballatas, they would have been monophonic.
The earliest polyphonic secular vocal music of the Trecento to survive is found in the Rossi Codex, and includes music by the first generation of Trecento composers: Maestro Piero, Giovanni da Cascia, as well as numerous composers who are anonymous. Other composers of the first generation include Vincenzo da Rimini and Jacopo da Bologna, who was probably the teacher of Francesco Landini. All of these composers were associated with aristocratic courts in the north of Italy, specifically Milan, Padua, and Verona. Some extremely obscure names survive in later sources, such as Bartolo da Firenze (fl. 1330–1360), who may have been the first Italian composer to write a polyphonic mass movement: a setting of the Credo.
This generation of composers usually wrote music with both voices singing the same text, in the manner of the conductus, and they preferred the form of the madrigal. While some of their music was still monophonic in the manner of the preceding century, much was for two voices, and Jacopo da Bologna wrote a few madrigals for three voices. Jacopo wrote one motet which has survived; motets from 14th century Italy are extremely rare. Indeed relatively little sacred music was produced by any composers in 14th century Italy: the almost complete focus on secular music by these composers, many of whom had musical careers in churches and could have been expected to write large quantities of sacred music, as did their descendants, is unique in medieval and early Renaissance history.

Early Trecento
The center of musical activity moved south in mid-century, to Florence, which was the cultural center of the early Renaissance. Characteristic of the next generation of composers, most of them Florentine, was a preference for the ballata, a form which seems to have exploded into popularity around mid-century. By far the most famous composer of the entire Trecento, Francesco Landini (c.1325–1397), was a member of this generation. Other composers of this group besides Landini included Gherardello da Firenze, Lorenzo da Firenze, and Donato da Cascia. Also by this generation of composers, the influence of French music was becoming apparent in the secular work of the native Italians.
Greater independence of voices was characteristic of the music of this generation, and points of imitation are common; in addition, the uppermost voice is often highly ornamented. Landini's music was particularly admired for its lyricism and expressive intensity: his fame has endured for six hundred years, and numerous contemporary recordings exist of his work.
The preferred form at this time was the ballata, which is closely related to the French virelai. Landini wrote 141 which have survived, but only 12 madrigals. Another form which became popular after the middle of the century was the caccia, most likely derived from the French chace, which was a two-voice canon.
Giovanni Boccaccio mentions Florentine music in the Decameron. He tells how in 1348, the year the Black Death ravaged Florence, members of a group of friends gathered to tell stories and sing songs, to instrumental accompaniment. While Boccaccio mentioned no composers by name, many of the Florentine musicians whose names have come down to us were in their early careers at this time.

Peak of the Trecento
The last generation of composers of the era included Niccolò da Perugia, Bartolino da Padova, Andrea da Firenze, Paolo da Firenze, Matteo da Perugia, and Johannes Ciconia, the first member of the group who was not a native Italian. Their principal form was the ballata, and the ornamentation of the parts is considerably less than in the music of the preceding group of composers. Text-painting is evident in some of their music: for example, some of their programmatic compositions include frank imitations of bird-calls or various dramatic effects. Ballate continued to be composed into the 15th century, and the form is closely related to the later frottola.
Ciconia, as a Netherlander, was one of the first of the group which was to dominate European music for the next two hundred years; early in his life he spent time in Italy learning the lyrical secular styles. Ciconia was also a composer of sacred music, and represents a link with the Burgundian school, the first generation of Netherlanders, which dominated the early and middle 15th century. Ciconia spent most of his Italian years in cities of northern Italy, including Venice and Padua; he died in Padua in 1412.
Another late 14th century composer, probably active in Rome, Abruzzo, and Teramo, was Antonio Zacara da Teramo. While a chronology of his music is yet to be established, it seems that his earlier music, surviving in the Squarcialupi Codex, is related to the style of Landini and Jacopo da Bologna; his later music borrows from the style of the Avignon-centered Ars subtilior, and indeed he seems to have supported the antipopes during the split of the papacy after the end of the century, going to Bologna around 1408.
The end of the Trecento marked the end of the dominance of Florence over Italian music; while it always maintained an active musical life, it would be replaced by Venice, Rome, Ferrara and other cities in the coming centuries, and never again regained the pre-eminent position it attained in the 14th century. By the first decade of the 15th century, the quattrocento, Venice had emerged as the leading power in Northern Italy; the foundation of a singing school there in 1403 was one step towards their equivalent emergence as a musical power.

Late Trecento and transitional era
Instrumental music was widespread, but relatively few notated examples have survived. Indeed while contemporary depictions of singers often show them performing from books or scrolls, paintings and miniatures of instrumentalists never show written music. The main keyboard collection is the Faenza Codex (Faenza, Biblioteca Comunale, ms. 117). Other small sources of keyboard music appear in codices in Padua (Archivio di Stato 553), Assisi (Biblioteca Comunale 187), and in one section of the Reina Codex (Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, n. a. fr. 6771). The typical keyboard style of the time seems to have placed the tenor of a secular song or a melody from plainchant in equal tones in the bass while a fast-moving line was written above it for the right hand. The surviving sources are likely among the few witnesses of a largely improvised tradition.
Other instrumental traditions are hinted at by the monophonic, untexted dances in a manuscript now in London (British Library, add. 29987) and in imitations of instrumental style in sung madrigals and cacce such as Dappoi che'l sole.
Instruments used during the Trecento included the vielle, lute, psaltery, flute, and organetto (portative organ: Landini is holding one in the illustration). Trumpets, drums (especially paired drums called nakers), and shawms were important military instruments.

Instrumental music
Music of the Trecento retained some characteristics of the preceding age, and began to foreshadow the Renaissance in others.
Consonances were unison, fifth and octave, just as in the ars antiqua, and the interval of a third was usually treated as a dissonance, especially earlier in the period. Parallel motion in unison, fifths, octaves, thirds, and occasionally fourths was used in moderation. Composers used passing tones to avoid parallel intervals, creating brief harsher dissonances, foreshadowing the style of counterpoint developed in the Renaissance. After 1350, there was increased use of triads in three-part writing, giving the music, to a modern ear, a tonal feeling. Accidentals occurred more frequently in music of the Trecento than in music of earlier eras; in particular, there was use of F♯, C♯, G♯, B♭, and E♭. One A♭ occurs in the works of Landini.
The Landini sixth, also known as the Landini cadence or under-third cadence, is a cadence involving the melodic drop from the seventh to the sixth before going up again to the octave. It was named after Landini because of its frequent use in his music. It was, however, not invented by him, and can be found in most of the music of the period.

Overall musical characteristics of the era
Most of the manuscript sources of trecento music are from late in the fourteenth or early in the fifteenth century: some time removed from the composition of the works themselves. The earliest substantial manuscript source of trecento music is the Rossi Codex, which was compiled sometime between 1350 and 1370, and contains music from the earlier portion of the era. However, other small manuscript sources have been found that expand our knowledge of earlier trecento repertories. These include the Mischiati fragments of Reggio Emilia, which contain several unique cacce. and scholarly consensus is building that the manuscript is no earlier than other sources commonly dated to the 1390s. Still, this episode reflects the difficulties and uncertainties of dating all trecento sources.
Most of the later large sources stem from the area around Florence. Probably the oldest of the larger sources is the Panciatichi Codex, no. 26. The largest and most beautiful trecento source is undoubtedly the brilliantly illuminated Squarcialupi Codex, compiled in the early 15th century, which, with 352 compositions (including 145 by Landini) is one of the largest music sources of the time from any region.
Substantial fragmentary manuscript sources from Padua, Cividale del Friuli, and from the area around Milan point to these areas as substantial areas of manuscript production as well. Few Italian compositions were copied outside of Italy, though the sacred music of Ciconia and Zacara appear in some Polish manuscripts of the fifteenth century.

See also

Michael Long, "Trecento Italy," in James McKinnon, ed., Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Man and Music (renamed: Music and Society) series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1991. pp. 241–268.

2007-10-31T10:00:00.000-07:00

Shortbread is a type of biscuit (cookie) which is traditionally made from one part white sugar, two parts butter, and three parts plain white flour, although other ingredients like ground rice or cornflour are sometimes added to alter the texture. Shortbread is so named because of its crumbly texture (from an old meaning of the word short). The cause of this texture is its high fat content, provided by the butter. The related word "shortening" refers to any fat that may be added to produce a short (crumbly) texture. The term "short" is used in reference to the fact that the fat molecules inhibit the formation of long gluten strands, making it "short".
Shortbread is not to be confused with shortcake, which is similar to shortbread but made using vegetable fat instead of butter, giving it a different texture.

Shapes
Shortbread is generally associated with and originated in Scotland, but due to its popularity it is also made in other countries like Denmark, England, Ireland and Sweden. In the latter a popular recipe of it is called "Drömmar", literally meaning "dreams" in English. The Scottish version is the best-known, and Walkers Shortbread Ltd is Scotland's largest food exporter.
Shortbread was chosen as the United Kingdom's representative for Café Europe during the 2006 Austrian Presidency of the European Union.

2007-10-30T08:24:00.001-07:00

Essex County is a county located in the U.S. state of New York. As of the 2000 census, the population was 38,851. Its name is from the English county of Essex. Its county seat is Elizabethtown.

History

Vincent Colyer (1825-1888), a successful Nineteenth-century artist and humanitarian, was born in Bloomingdale.
James Renwick, Jr. (1818-1895), a successful Nineteenth-century architect, was born in Bloomingdale.
Johnny Podres (1932- ), Pitcher for Brooklyn Dodgers and 1955 World Series MVP, was born in Witherbee. Notable people, past and present
Essex County is in the northeastern part of New York State, just west of Vermont along the eastern boundary of the State. The eastern boundary of Essex County is Lake Champlain, which serves as the New York-Vermont border. The highest point in New York, Mount Marcy is in the Town of Keene.
The Ausable River forms a partial northern boundary for the county.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 4,964 km² (1,916 mi²). 4,654 km² (1,797 mi²) of it is land and 310 km² (120 mi²) of it (6.25%) is water.

Adjacent Counties
As of the census² of 2000, there were 38,851 people, 15,028 households, and 9,828 families residing in the county. The population density was 8/km² (22/mi²). There were 23,115 housing units at an average density of 5/km² (13/mi²). The racial makeup of the county was 94.84% White, 2.81% Black or African American, 0.31% Native American, 0.41% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 0.69% from other races, and 0.86% from two or more races. 2.19% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 15,028 households out of which 29.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.20% were married couples living together, 8.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.60% were non-families. 28.30% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.93.
In the county the population was spread out with 22.80% under the age of 18, 6.90% from 18 to 24, 29.80% from 25 to 44, 24.50% from 45 to 64, and 16.00% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 107.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108.60 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $34,823, and the median income for a family was $41,927. Males had a median income of $30,952 versus $22,205 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,194. 11.60% of the population and 7.80% of families were below the poverty line. 14.50% of those under the age of 18 and 8.60% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

Cities, Towns, Villages, and other locations

Essex County Philatelic Cancellations

2007-10-29T08:13:00.001-07:00

Cox's Bazar is a major city and district in Bangladesh. It is also one of the world's longest natural sandy sea beaches (120 km) including mud flats. It is located 150 km south of Chittagong. Cox's Bazar is also known by the name "Panowa", the literal translation of which means "yellow flower". Its other old name was "Palongkee". The modern Cox's Bazar derives its name from Captain Cox (died 1798), an army officer serving in British India. It is also one of the fishing ports of Bangladesh.
Often termed as "World's longest sandy sea beach", Cox's Bazar is yet to become a major tourist destination in Asia allegedly due to conservative attitude of local people.

Geography and Climate

Economy and Development
Cox's Bazar, mostly famous for its beautiful sea beach and the sunset, has several other attractions, including:

Aggmeda Khyang [1], a large Buddhist monastery, and a place revered by around 400,000 Buddhist people of Cox's Bazar; and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Himchari, located about 12 km south of Cox's Bazar, is a picnic spot and famous for its waterfalls and provid sufficient security for the tourists.Road to Himchari run by the open sea in one side and hills in othes make the journey to Himchari a path of Heaven.
Inani, also 32 km south of Cox's Bazar offers sea bathing.
Laboni Beach is the main beach of Cox's Bazar and is considered the main beach due to the fact that it is closest to the town.
Maheskhali is a small island (268 square kilometres) off the Cox's Bazar coast. The island offers panoramic scenic beauty and is covered by low hills and mangrove forests. Adinath, a temple of Shiva, and a Buddhist pagoda are also located on the island.
Ramu, about 16 km from Cox's Bazar, is a village with sizeable Buddhist population. The village is famous for its handicrafts and homemade cigars.
Sonadia Island, a small island of only 9 square kilometers
Teknaf, a place situated by the side of Naaf river is the southernmost part of Bangladesh. The place is home to several birds and wild animals.
HotelsThe best place to stay in coxbazar may be Hotel "Seagull" or "Hotel Sea Place" with its aesthetic outlook and hospitality feel like in home.Located 500 m close to sea shore and self protected sea beach. Facts
Sunset at Cox's Bazar
Submarine Cable Landing Station
Cox's Bazar Bus Terminal
Cox's Bazar Beach
Cox's Bazar Beach
Sunset
Cox's Bazar Marine Drive
Cox's Bazar Marine Drive
Himchari
Himchari

2007-10-28T08:19:00.001-07:00

Matthew Fitt is a Lowland Scots poet and novelist. He was born in 1968 in Dundee, Scotland. Previously writer-in-residence at Greater Pollok in Glasgow, he is currently National Scots Language Development Officer.
In 2002 he and James Robertson founded 'Itchy Coo', a publishing imprint and educational project to reintroduce schoolchildren to the Scots tongue.
His best known work is But'n'Ben A-Go-Go, a cyberpunk novel in Lowland Scots. Earlier works included The Hoose O Haivers, a loose retelling of the Metamorphoses of Ovid in Scots and The Smoky Smirr O Rain, a Scots anthology.
He wrote the lyrics to Icker in a Thrave, the 2007 Scots entry for the "Liet Lavlut" song contest for minority languages in Europe. The tune was written by Simon Thoumire, and the song was performed by Mairi Campbell (singing), Kevin Mackenzie (guitar), Clare McLaughlin (fiddle) and Simon Thoumire (concertina).

2007-10-27T10:24:00.001-07:00

Diet Coke Caffiene-Free was introduced in 1983. It was the first variant of Diet Coke. Like Sprite, no caffiene is included.

2007-10-26T08:13:00.001-07:00

Antonio Flores Jijón (23 October 1833 - 30 August 1915) was President of Ecuador 17 August 1888 to 30 June 1892. He was a member of the Progressive Party, a Liberal Catholic party.
Flores Jijón was born in Quito at The Government Palace while his father, General Juan Jose Flores, presided over the nation. During the first presidency of Gabriel García Moreno, Flores Jijón was an ambassador in Paris, London, and Washington. He died in Geneva, Switzerland. He was married to Leonor Ruiz de Apodaca y García-Tienza, a native of Cuba. His vicepresident was Pedró Cevallos Salvador.

2007-10-25T08:08:00.001-07:00

The dollar was the currency of Penang between 1786 and 1826. It was subdivided into 100 cents, also called pice, and was equal to the Spanish dollar. The dollar was introduced after the East India Company acquired the island in 1786. In 1826, the Indian rupee was declared legal tender in Penang at a value of 48 pice. The dollar again became the currency of Penang with the introduction of the Straits dollar.
Between 1786 and 1788, coins were issued in denominations of ⁄₁₀, ¼ and ½ dollar (silver). Large, tin 1 cent coins were issued between 1800 and 1809, followed by copper ½ and 1 cent in 1810. In 1826, copper ½, 1 and 2 cents coins were issued which were also minted in 1828, after the dollar had been replaced by the rupee.

2007-10-24T08:30:00.001-07:00

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

2007-10-23T10:28:00.001-07:00

Afrikaans is a Low Franconian variety, derived from Dutch, mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia with smaller numbers of speakers in Botswana, Angola, Swaziland, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Due to emigration and migrant labour, there are possibly over 100,000 Afrikaans speakers in the United Kingdom, with other substantial communities found in Brussels, Amsterdam, Perth, Western Australia, Toronto and Auckland. It is the primary language used by two related ethnic groups in South Africa: the Afrikaners and the Coloureds or kleurlinge/bruinmense (including Basters, Cape Malays and Griqua).
Geographically, the Afrikaans language is the majority language of the western one-third of South Africa (Northern and Western Cape, spoken at home by 69% and 58%, respectively). It is also the largest first language in the adjacent southern third of Namibia (Hardap and Karas, where it is the first language of 43% and 41%, respectively). It is the most widely used second language throughout both of these countries for the population as a whole, although the younger generation has better proficiency in English.
Afrikaans originated from the Dutch language. The dialect became known as "Cape Dutch". Later, Afrikaans was sometimes also referred to as "African Dutch" or "Kitchen Dutch", although these terms were mainly pejorative. Afrikaans was considered a Dutch dialect until the late 19th century, when it began to be recognised as a distinct language, and it gained equal status with Dutch and English as an official language in South Africa in 1925. Dutch remained an official language until the new 1961 constitution finally stipulated the two official languages in South Africa to be Afrikaans and English (although, curiously, the 1961 constitution still had a sub-clause stipulating that the word "Afrikaans" was also meant to be referring to the Dutch language). It is the only Indo-European language of significance that developed on the African continent.

History
There are basically three dialects, of which the northeastern variant (which developed into a literary language in the Transvaal) forms the basis of the written standard. Within the Dutch-speaking zones of the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname, there is greater divergence among the dialects than there is between standard Dutch and standard Afrikaans. Although Afrikaans knows some typical Hollandic tones, there particularly exist striking similarities between Afrikaans and Zeeuws (the dialect of the Zeeland province of the Netherlands which has also similarities with West Flemish). Zeeland is a coastal province of the Netherlands and most of the Dutch spoken in former Dutch colonies is very much influenced by Zeeuws/the Zeeland dialect as many people from Zeeland were involved in The Netherlands' imperial/colonial expansion.

Dialects
The linguist Paul Roberge suggests that the earliest "truly Afrikaans" texts are doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Printed material among the Afrikaners at first used only standard European Dutch. By the mid-19th century, more and more were appearing in Afrikaans, which was very much still regarded as a set of regional dialects.
In 1861, L.H. Meurant published his Zamenspraak tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar, which is considered by some to be the first authoritative Afrikaans text. Abu Bakr Effendi also compiled his Arabic Afrikaans Islamic instruction book between 1862 and 1869, although this was only published and printed in 1877. The first Afrikaans grammars and dictionaries were published in 1875 by the Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners ("Society for Real Afrikaners") in Cape Town.
The First and Second Boer Wars further strengthened the position of the new Dutch-like language. The official languages of the Union of South Africa were English and Dutch until Afrikaans was subsumed under Dutch on 5 May 1925.
The main Afrikaans dictionary is the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT), which is as yet incomplete due to the scale of the project, but the one volumed dictionary in household use is the Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (HAT). The official orthography of Afrikaans is the Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls, compiled by the Taalkommissie.

Standardisation of Afrikaans
Afrikaans spelling is simpler than that of Dutch, and its grammar is similar to the same degree that English grammar is simpler than German grammar. Afrikaans also has a more diverse vocabulary, including words of English, Indian, Malay, Malagasy, Khoi, San and Bantu origins. Cape Dutch vocabulary diverged from the Dutch vocabulary spoken in the Netherlands over time as Cape Dutch absorbed words from other European settlers, slaves from East India and Indonesia's Malay, and native African languages. Research by J. A. Heese indicates that as of 1807, 36.8% of the ancestors of the White Afrikaans speaking population were of Dutch ancestry, 35% were German, 14.6% were French and 7.2% non-white (of African and/or Asian origins). (However, Heese's figures are questioned by other researchers.)
Besides vocabulary, the most striking difference between Dutch and Afrikaans is that Afrikaans has a much more regular grammar, which is likely the result of extensive contact with one or more creole languages based on the Dutch language spoken by the relatively large number of non-Dutch speakers (Khoikhoi, German, French, Cape Malay, and speakers of different African languages) during the formation period of the language in the second half of the 17th century. In 1710, slaves outnumbered free settlers, and the language was developing among speakers who had little occasion to write or analyse their new dialect.
Although much of the vocabulary of Afrikaans reflects its origins in 17th century South Hollandic Dutch, it also contains words borrowed from Asian Malay (one of the oldest known Afrikaans texts used Arabic script; see Arabic Afrikaans), Malagasy, Portuguese, French, Khoi and San dialects, English, Xhosa and many other languages. Consequently, many words in Afrikaans are very different from Dutch, as demonstrated by these names of fruits:
* from Malay pisang (via Dutch East Indies history). Piesang (spelt as pisang) is also used colloquially in The Netherlands and in Indonesian Dutch. ** In Malay, nanas = pineapple. *** suur = sour (which is essentially the same as the Dutch word 'zuur'). Lemoen or limoen is also used in standard Dutch where it translates as 'lime', however.

Grammar

Comparison with Dutch and English
Written Afrikaans differs from Dutch in that the spelling reflects a phonetically simplified language, and so many consonants are dropped (see also the grammar section for a description of how consonant dropping affects the morphology of Afrikaans adjectives and nouns). The spelling is also considerably more phonetic than the Dutch counterpart. A notable feature is the indefinite article, which, as noted in the grammar section, is "'n", not "een" as in Dutch. "A book" is "'n boek", whereas in Dutch it would be "een boek". (Note that "'n" is still allowed in Dutch; Afrikaans uses only "'n" where Dutch uses it next to "een". When letters are dropped an apostrophe is mandatory. Note that this " 'n" is usually pronounced as a weak vowel (like the Afrikaans "i") and is not as a consonant.
Other features include the use of 's' instead of 'z', and therefore, 'South Africa' in Afrikaans is written as Suid-Afrika, whereas in Dutch it is Zuid-Afrika. (This accounts for .za being used as South Africa's internet top level domain.) The Dutch letter 'IJ' is written as 'Y', except where it replaces the Dutch suffix —lijk, as in waarschijnlijk = waarskynlik. It is interesting to note that the use of the hard "k" is analogous to the pronunciation in parts of Flanders, which was once part of the United Provinces, and whence many Afrikaners came. Also noteworthy is that, although the first 90 Afrikaner settlers came from Haarlem in the Northern Netherlands, the majority of the population of that city at that time consisted of Southern Dutch immigrants.
The letters c, q and x are rarely seen in Afrikaans, and words containing them are almost exclusively borrowings from French, English, Greek or Latin. This is usually because words which had c and ch in the original Dutch are spelt with k and g repectively in Afrikaans (in many dialects of Dutch (including the Hollandic ones), a ch is spoken as a g, which explains the use of the g in Afrikaans language). Similarly original qu and x are spelt kw and ks respectively. For example ekwatoriaal instead of "equatoriaal" and ekskuus instead of "excuus".
Afrikaans uses 26 letters, just like English. Although it makes use of various diacritics to modify a letter: è, é, ê, ë, î, ï, ô, û, these should not however be regarded as special characters in addition to the 26 normal letters and may, indeed, be replaced by their normal equivalents in cases where it is impractical or impossible to use the diacritics (as in ASCII computer terminals — It is, however, considered erroneous to replace the letters where conditions do not necessitate it).
ŉ is regarded as two separate characters, and the "n" in 'n may never be written in upper case. When used at the beginning of a sentence, the second word's first letter should be capitalised. ŉ is the Afrikaans equivalent of the English "a/an," e.g. 'n Man loop ver or A man walks far.

Orthography
Note: This page or section contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See International Phonetic Alphabet for a pronunciation key.
Afrikaans is a very centralised language, meaning that most of the vowels are pronounced in a very centralised (i.e. very schwa-like) way. There are many different dialects and different pronunciations — but the transcription should be fairly standard.
An interesting sentence having the same meaning and written (but not pronounced) identically in Afrikaans and English is:
Similarly the sentence:
has almost identical meaning in Afrikaans and English although the Afrikaans warm corresponds more closely in meaning to English hot and Dutch heet (Dutch warm corresponds to English warm, but is closer to Afrikaans in pronunciation).
Another interesting play on words:

Hallo! Hoe gaan dit? [ɦaləu ɦu xaˑn dət] Hello! How are you?
Baie goed, dankie. [bajə xuˑt danki] Very well, thanks.
Praat jy/u Afrikaans? [prɑˑt jəi afrikɑˑns] Do you speak Afrikaans?
Praat jy/u Engels? [prɑˑt jəi ɛŋəls] Do you speak English?
Ja. [jɑˑ] Yes.
Nee. [neˑə] No.
'n Bietjie. [ə biki] A little.
Wat is jou/u naam? [vat əs jəu nɑˑm] What is your name?
Die kinders praat Afrikaans. [di kənərs prɑˑt afrikɑˑns] The children speak Afrikaans.
My pen was in my hand. ([məi pɛn vas ən məi hɑnt])
My hand is in warm water. ([məi hɑnt əs ən varəm vɑˑtər])
Baie koud! [bajə kəʊt] It is very cold!
Buy a coat!
Baie dankie! Thank you very much!
Buy a donkey! Afrikaans phrases
Afrikaans is the first language of approximately 60% of South Africa's "Whites", and over 90% of the "Coloured" (mixed-race) population. Large numbers of "black" South Africans, Indians, and English-speaking whites (Anglo-Africans) also speak it as a second language. Some state that Afrikaanses should be used as a term for all people who speak Afrikaans, irrespective of ethnic origin, instead of "Afrikaners", which refers to an ethnic group, or "Afrikaanssprekendes" (lit. people that speak Afrikaans). Linguistic identity has not yet established that one term be favoured above another and all three are used in common parlance. argue that the primary cause of the uprising was one specific aspect of the government's language instruction decision: that non-White (i.e., Black, Coloured and Indian) South African children be denied instruction in all but the most basic topics of mathematics, sciences, fine arts, etc. The government justified this policy by claiming that non-White South Africans would never have an occasion to use such knowledge; see History of South Africa.
Under South Africa's democratic Constitution of 1996, Afrikaans remains an official language, and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, the South African Broadcasting Corporation reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, while South African Airways dropped its Afrikaans name Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens from its livery. Similarly, South Africa's diplomatic missions overseas now only display the name of the country in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans.
In spite of these moves (which have upset many Afrikaans speakers), the language has remained strong, with Afrikaans newspapers and magazines continuing to have large circulation figures. Indeed the Afrikaans language general interest family magazine Huisgenoot, has the largest readership of any magazine in the country. In addition, a pay-TV channel in Afrikaans called KykNet was launched in 1999, and an Afrikaans music channel, MK89, in 2005. A large number of Afrikaans books also continue to be published every year. Afrikaans music is also flourishing.
Afrikaans still shares approximately 85 percent of its vocabulary with Dutch, and Afrikaans speakers are able to learn Dutch within a comparatively short period of time. Native Dutch speakers pick up Afrikaans even more quickly, due to its simplified grammar, and Afrikaans speakers can learn a Dutch accent with little training. This has enabled Dutch companies to outsource their call centre operations to South Africa [2].
Afrikaans has two monuments erected in its honour. The first was erected in Burgersdorp, South Africa, in 1893, and the second, more well-known Afrikaans Language Monument (Afrikaanse Taalmonument) was built in Paarl, South Africa, in 1975. The South African filmmaker, Jamie Uys, made a documentary feature film on the rise of the Afrikaner and the development of the language entitled "Doodkry Is Min" (They Can't Oppress Us). It had its premiere at the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria in 1961 and copies are preserved at the National Film, Video and Sound Archives.

Sociolinguistics

Aardklop Arts Festival
Arabic Afrikaans
List of Afrikaans language poets
List of English words of Afrikaans origin
Afrikaans speaking population in South Africa
South African Translators' Institute See also

Roberge, P. T., 2002. Afrikaans - considering origins, in Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 0-521-53383-X
South African Afrikaans: History |Slang General

Litnet - Literature, culture and debate
Die Knoop - A very large list of links to Afrikaans websites
Woes.co.za - A popular multi-user blog
The New South African - Afrikaans - More about South Africa's official languages.
Kuier.co.za - A popular multi-user blog Organisations

Spel.co.za - Spell checker for Microsoft Office
WSpel - Spell checker for Microsoft Word
Translate.org.za - Spell checker for OpenOffice.org, Mozilla Firefox and Mozilla Thunderbird

2007-10-22T10:00:00.001-07:00

For other Navy ships of the same name, see USS Abraham Lincoln.
Coordinates: 47°58′55.15″N, 122°13′39.94″W
USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72), nicknamed "Abe", is the fifth Nimitz-class supercarrier in the United States Navy. She is the second Navy ship named after former president Abraham Lincoln. Her home port is Everett, Washington.

Construction
Abraham Lincoln was transferred to the Pacific, in September 1990. Her maiden Western Pacific deployment came unexpectedly on 28 May 1991 in response to Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm.
While heading toward the Indian Ocean, the ship was diverted to support evacuation operations after Mount Pinatubo erupted on Luzon island in the Philippines. In support of Operation Fiery Vigil, Lincoln led a 23-ship armada that moved over 45,000 people from the Subic Bay Naval Station to the port of Cebu in the Visayas. It was the largest peacetime evacuation of active military personnel and their families in history.
After Fiery Vigil, Lincoln steamed toward the Persian Gulf, to run reconnaissance and combat air patrols in Iraq and Kuwait, assisting allied and US troops involved with Desert Storm.
In early 1992, the ship supported Operation Southern Watch, the United Nations-sanctioned "no fly zone" over southern Iraq.
In October 1993, the carrier was ordered to the coast of Somalia to assist UN humanitarian operations. For four weeks, Abraham Lincoln flew air patrols over Mogadishu in support of Operation Restore Hope.
Abraham Lincoln was to be the first carrier to integrate female aviators into the crew after the Combat Exclusion Laws were lifted on 28 April 1993. The ship left San Diego on 24 October 1994, to begin refresher training. The next day, Lieutenant Kara Spears Hultgreen, first female F-14 Tomcat pilot, died when her plane crashed into the sea on final approach due to a combination of engine malfunction and pilot error.
Abraham Lincoln's third deployment began in April 1995 when Lincoln was sent to the Persian Gulf, where the ship assisted in Southern Watch and in Operation Vigilant Sentinel.
Abraham Lincoln began a fourth deployment in June 1998. Once again, the ship headed for the Persian Gulf in support of Southern Watch. The ship spent three months in the gulf during one of the hottest summers in recent years. Temperatures on the flight deck were reported at 150 degrees Fahrenheit (66 °C).
In 1999 the ship participated in several internal Navy exercises and underwent an upkeep at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Wash.

2000 to date

The Abraham Lincoln is one of the vessels commonly associated with a famous naval anecdote, in which a stubborn ship's captain, in his ignorance, attempts to persuade what turns out to be a lighthouse off the coast of Newfoundland to change course. This urban legend continually resurfaces and remains a popular subject in joke emails still forwarded around the internet, despite no evidence existing to support the events it describes. Many such emails claim this occurrence took place on 16 October 1997, even though the story appears to have been circulating in some form or other many years previous.
In Tom Clancy's novel Debt of Honor (1994), Abraham Lincoln is one of two carriers sent to protect Sri Lanka from the Indian Navy.
In Tom Clancy's novel Executive Orders (1996), Abraham Lincoln is one of two carriers moved to China to establish a U.S. presence after an airliner is shot down.
In the movie The Core (2003), Abraham Lincoln makes an appearance in a search-and-rescue mission; while not mentioned by name, "CVN-72" caps are readily apparent in scenes on the bridge.
The 2005 movie Stealth features a trio of US Navy pilots that are assigned to Abraham Lincoln.
In Ted Bell's novel Pirate, a new plane is launched from the Abraham Lincoln, fails to launch and falls overboard.
In Spock's Beard's song "Crack the Big Sky" it is referenced in the line "Light the light's on Lincoln's Lake".
In Transformers the Abraham Lincoln is shown as part of the force mobilised to combat the suspected threat to the US. Whilst not mentioned, the deck number is clearly recognisable.

2007-10-21T09:15:00.001-07:00

Abnormal Biological Cognitive Developmental Emotion Evolutionary Legal Neuropsychology Personality Positive Psychophysics Social Transpersonal
Clinical Educational Forensic Health Industrial/Org Sport
Publications Topics Therapies
Brain-computer interfaces • Brain damage Brain regions • Clinical neuropsychology Cognitive neuroscience • Human brain Mind and Brain • Neuroanatomy Neurophysiology • Phrenology Popular misconceptions arousal • attention concentration • consciousness decision-making • executive functions language • learning • memory motor coordination • perception planning • problem solving thinking Arthur L. Benton • Antonio Damasio • Kenneth Heilman Phineas Gage • Norman Geschwind • Elkhonon Goldberg Donald Hebb • Alexander Luria • Muriel D. Lezak • Brenda Milner Karl Pribram • Oliver Sacks Roger Sperry
Bender-Gestalt Test Benton Visual Retention Test Clinical Dementia Rating Continuous Performance Task Hayling and Brixton tests Lexical decision task Mini mental state examination Stroop task Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Glasgow Coma Score Wisconsin card sorting task
Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language. It had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children. Cognitive psychologists are interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems take the form of algorithms—rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or heuristics—rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships.

History
Perception
Categorization
Memory
Knowledge representation
Numerical cognition
Language
Thinking

Attention and Filter theories (the ability to focus mental effort on specific stimuli whilst excluding other stimuli from consideration)
Pattern recognition (the ability to correctly interpret ambiguous sensory information)
Object recognition
Time sensation (awareness and estimation of the passage of time)
Category induction and acquisition
Categorical judgement and classification
Category representation and structure
Similarity (psychology)
Aging and memory
Autobiographical memory
Constructive memory
Emotion and memory
Episodic memory
False memories
Flashbulb memory
List of memory biases
Long-term memory
Semantic memory
Spaced repetition
Source monitoring
Working memory
Mental imagery
Propositional encoding
Imagery versus proposition debate
Dual-coding theories
Mental models
Grammar and linguistics
Phonetics and phonology
Language acquisition
Choice (see also: Choice theory)
Concept formation
Decision making
Judgment and decision making
Logic, formal and natural reasoning
Problem solving See also

Important publications in cognitive psychology

2007-10-20T11:28:00.001-07:00

Scots law This article is part of the series: Courts of Scotland
Administration
Scottish Executive Justice Department

Cabinet Secretary for Justice
Scottish Court Service

College of Justice
Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission
Scottish Prison Service
Civil courts
Privy Council
House of Lords
Court of Session

Lord President
Lords of Session
Sheriff Court

Sheriff
Criminal courts
High Court of Justiciary

Lord Justice-General
Lords Commissioner of Justiciary
Sheriff Court

Sheriff Principal
Sheriff
District Court

Justice of the Peace
Special courts
Court of the Lord Lyon

Lord Lyon King of Arms
Children's Hearings
Criminal justice
Lord Advocate

Crown Office
Advocate Depute
Procurator Fiscal
Advocates and solicitors
Faculty of Advocates

Advocate
Law Society of Scotland

Solicitor-Advocate
Solicitor
A District Court is the lowest level of court in Scotland. It deals mainly with minor offences and they operate under summary procedure.

Role
In Glasgow where the volume of business requires the employment of three solicitors as "stipendiary magistrates" who sit in place of the lay Justices. The Stipendiary Magistrates' court has the same sentencing power as the summary Sheriff Court.